)m^ 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


OCT  Z  ^  jy^^ 


UUN  7    1949 
N0V24195f 

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Foriu  L-9-5r«-12,'2f. 


AN    OUTLINE 

OF 

INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 


BY 

G.   E.   PARTRIDGE,  Ph.D. 

FORMERLY    LECl'UREU    IN    (.'LARK    UKIVEHSITT 


7.0  I  2.0 


STURGIS  &  WALTON 

COMPANY 

1910 

All  rights  reserved 

2,0  \  '^0 


Copyright   1910 
By  STURGIS  &  WALTON  COMPANY 


Set  up  and  eleclrotjped.    Publislied  March.  1910 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 

HISTORY    AND    THEORY    OF    INDIVUJUAL    STUDY 

PAGF 

I.     The  Nature  of  Individuality 3 

11.     Individual  Study  as  a  Science 11 

III.  The   Variational    Method    .      .      '. 17 

IV.  Individual    Study    Within   Psychology    ....  26 
V.     Individual    Study    From    the    Biological    Point    of 

View 36 

PART  II 

PRACTICAL  STUDY  OF  INDIVIDUALS 

I.     Methods    and    Directions 47 

II.     Examination  of  the  Health 52 

III.  Observation  of  Body  Characteristics 64 

IV.  Measurement  of  the  Body 73 

V.     Observation   of   Movements 85 

VI.     The  Experimental  Study  of  IMovement    ....  72 

VII.     CentTP.:   Description  of  Mental  Traits    ....  103 

VIII.     The    Emotional    Life 113 

IX.     Interests    and    Instincts 128 

X.     Some  General  Characteristics  of   Interest    .      .      .  138 

XL     Senses  and  Perception 146 

XII.     Senses  and  Perception    {continued) 153 

XIII.  Mechanism  of  the  Mind:     Memory 163 

XIV.  Mechanism  of  the  Mind:     Association    ....  171 
XV.     Free    Activity    of   the   Mind 178 

XVI.     Purposive    Thinking 186 


CONTENTS 
PART  III 

APPLICATION    AND    RESULTS    OF   INDIVIDUAL   STT7DT 

PAGE 
I.     A   Study   of   Two   Children 201 

II.     Typos  of  Individuals 221 

III.     Pedagogical  Aspects  of  Individuality     ....   227 


PEEFACE 

This  manual  of  methods  for  the  study  of  the 
human  individual  is  intended  to  serve  a  prac- 
tical and  introductory  rather  than  a  scien- 
tific purpose.  It  is  not  intended  for  students 
interested  in  research,  but  is  for  those  who 
wish  a  first  guide  in  the  study  of  individuals. 
It  is  in  one  sense  and  not  another  that  it  is 
called  practical.  It  does  not  contain  much 
about  standards  and  results  of  experiments,  by 
means  of  which  one  can  safely  compare  in- 
dividuals with  the  average  or  norm,  for  the 
purposes  of  an  exact  or  scientific  pedagogy. 
It  is  intended  to  be  practical  in  the  sense  that 
it  is  hoped  that  by  it  the  student  can  be  led 
to  observe  individuals  more  intelligently  and 
systematically,  and  thus  be  the  better  able  to 
understand  and  serve  them.  Incidentally  it  is 
to  be  hoped  that  some  insight  into  the  nature  of 
individuality  and  the  scientific  study  of  it  will 
be  acquired. 

The  book'  comprises  for  the  most  part  a 
course  of  study  that  has  been  used  several 
times  in  classes  in  a  Normal  School,  each  time 
with  an  increased  conviction  that  some  such 
work  is  the  best  psychology  and  pedagogy  for 


ii  PREFACE 

these  classes:  for  with  the  attention  focused 
on  the  individual  and  his  needs,  general  prob- 
lems cannot  fail  to  appear  also,  and  practical 
questions  are  always  within  reach.  This  is  the 
case  method  that  has  succeeded  so  well  in  the 
training  of  physician  and  lawyer.  That  it  has 
a  wider  application  in  the  training  of  the 
teacher  than  has  yet  been  given  it,  seems  to  be 
indicated.  As  a  method  of  mind  training  it 
has  some  of  the  advantages  of  the  intensive 
work  of  higher  grades,  and  the  value  to  the 
student  of  studying  thoroughly  one  or  a  few 
individuals  is  believed  to  be  great.  The  par- 
ticular experiments  made,  and  the  scientific 
knowledge  gained  are  of  minor  importance  from 
this  consideration,  but  the  increased  power  to 
analyze  the  life-situation  of  another  person  that 
is  acquired  is  of  great  value.  To  be  led  from 
a  state  of  ignorant  indifference  toward  an  un- 
interesting person  to  a  sympathetic  and  intelli- 
gent cooperation  in  his  welfare  is  one  of  the 
best  experiences  that  can  come  to  any  one,  and 
particularly  to  a  teacher. 

In  practice,  work  such  as  is  outlined  in  this 
book  can  be  given  to  students  either  before  or 
after  other  study  of  pedagogy  and  psychology. 
The  experience  and  observation  of  the  writer 
lead  him  to  the  conviction  that  most  so-called 
general  psychology,  even  the  most  elementary, 
fails  to  affect  the  practical  life  of  the  teacher, 
and  that  more  study  of  the  kind  that  brings 


PREFACE  iii 

the  student  into  contact  with  children  is  needed 
in  Normal  Schools.  It  seems  better  to  lead  to 
psychology  from  practical  questions  that  arise 
in  actual  teaching  or  observing  of  children  than 
to  try  to  apply  psychology  in  advance  to  the 
work  of  teaching.  Students  do  not  readily  ap- 
ply psychology,  and  one  successful  training 
teacher  whose  experience  extends  over  a  period 
of  twelve  years  declares  that  in  all  her  ac- 
quaintance with  practice  teachers  she  has  never 
known  an  instance  in  which  any  reference  was 
ever  made  spontaneously  by  a  student  to  any 
principle  or  fact  that  had  been  acquired  in  pre- 
vious psychological  work.  Such  testimony,  if 
it  is  at  all  representative  of  the  state  of  affairs 
in  the  Normal  School,  argues  for  closer  contact, 
on  the  part  of  the  psychological  student,  with 
the  problems  of  the  schoolroom  and  the  indi- 
viduals in  it. 

If  some  general  psychology  is  to  precede  ob- 
servation and  practice  it  seems  best  that  it 
should  be  largely  genetic  psychology;  study  in 
which  the  teacher-to-be  is  made  to  live  again 
his  own  childhood,  and  to  follow  the  course  of 
his  own  mental  development.  If  this  is  entered 
into  with  zest  by  the  student  it  is  difficult  to 
see  how  study  of  systematic  treatises  on  ana- 
lytic psychology,  in  the  time  that  is  usually 
devoted  to  psychology,  can  add  much  to  the 
practical  result  that  is  desired  for  the  teacher. 

The  experiments  and  methods  of  observation 


iv  PREFACE 

that  are  described  have  been  gathered  from 
many  sources,  and  no  special  effort  has  been 
made  to  give  credit  to  those  who  have  first 
suggested  them,  except  in  cases  in  which  the 
results  of  research  made  by  the  method  have 
been  mentioned.  The  greatest  single  source 
of  assistance  has  been  the  work  of  Binet. 
Many  of  his  tests  have  been  used,  and  some  of 
them  modified  to  suit  present  purposes.  The 
experimental  work  of  American  writers  has 
yielded  others:  some  have  been  devised  by  the 
writer.  Nearly  everything  in  the  book  has 
been  put  to  considerable  trial  in  actual  investi- 
gations. Some  of  the  tests  have  been  modified 
as  a  result  of  such  use,  or  to  avoid  the  use 
of  apparatus:  some  are  described  exactly  as 
they  were  tried.  The  purpose  being  to  stimu- 
late practical  observation  of  individuals,  rather 
than  research,  it  has  not  been  thought  neces- 
sary in  some  cases  to  describe  the  methods  in 
full  detail,  but  to  leave  something  to  the  choice 
and  ingenuity  of  the  student.  The  investiga- 
tions and  observation  of  the  writer  upon  which 
the  methods  are  based  are  as  follows:  —  In- 
vestigation of  special  topics  such  as  control  of 
the  reflex  wink  and  description  of  an  imaginary 
animal  made  upon  Worcester  school  children; 
study  of  two  hundred  East  Side  school  children, 
New  York,  with  H.  S.  Curtis,  reported  in  New 
York  School  Board  Reports  1898;  physical  ex- 
amination   of    two    thousand    school    children, 


PREFACE  V 

Worcester;  study  of  physical  condition  of 
school  children,  Mankato,  Minnesota;  report  to 
Worcester  School  Board  on  examinations  of 
sight  and  hearing  of  school  children;  study  of 
a  group  of  eighty  school  children  during  a 
period  of  three  years,  Mankato  Noraial  School ; 
study  of  defectives  in  schools  and  jjospitals, 
Worcester;  study  of  twins,  reported  in  Chap- 
ter I,  Part  III.  Some  of  the  material  used  in 
Part  I  is  adapted  from  unpublished  lectures 
delivered  at  Clark  University  in  1905,  on  the 
subject  of  Variational  Psychology. 

Gr.  E.  Partkidge. 
Worcester,  Mass., 
December  5, 1909. 


HISTORY  AND  THEORY  OF  INDI- 
VIDUAL STUDY 


THE    NATUltii   OF   xl\uiViuLAui'^)i. 

Although  to  the  student  of  philosophy  the 
nature  of  individuality  is  a  profound  problem, 
for  our  ordinary  practical  purposes  we  have 
a  sufficiently  clear  understanding  of  what  we 
mean  by  a  human  individual.  We  speak  of 
ourselves  and  others  as  individuals,  thinking 
of  individuals  as  centers  of  action,  and  pos- 
sessors of  a  unique  mental  content,  into  which 
no  other  person  can  penetrate,  except  indi- 
rectly. Individuals  moreover  possess  bodies 
through  which  the  inner  life  is  partly  expressed 
and  by  means  of  which  they  contend  and  coop- 
erate with  each  other.  Many  experiences  in 
practical  life  teach  us  that  there  are  many  dif- 
ferences among  individuals;  that,  indeed,  no 
two  can  be  found  that  are  exactly  alike. 

Study  of  other  forms  of  life  than  the  human 
shows  that  variability  among  individuals  also 
exists  even  in  the  lowest  orders  of  life,  both 
in  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdom;  that 
though  individuals  of  these  orders  are  less  com- 
plex than  the  human,  yet  they  differ  greatly 
from  each  other.  Accepting  the  evolutionary 
theory  of  life,  it  is  plain  that  the  problem  of 

3 


4  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

individuality  in  the  human  race  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  part  of  a  larger  problem  that  deals 
with  variability  in  general  as  it  appears  in 
all  forms  of  life.  Individuality  therefore  is  a 
deep  sciemtific  problem. 

An  individual,  regarded  as  a  scientific  prob- 
lem, presents  himself  for  study  in  several  dif- 
ferent aspects.  He  is,  first,  a  member  of  a 
species,  an  individual  different  from  all  other 
individuals  of  that  species.  Being  complex,  he 
can  be  analyzed  into  factors  or  elements,  and 
can  then  be  compared  with  others  of  the  species 
with  reference  to  the  characteristics  of  these 
elements.  The  ideal  of  an  exact  science  of  in- 
dividuality would  be  to  measure  each  of  the 
variable  traits  and  to  assign  the  individual  with 
regard  to  it,  to  his  place  in  the  species. 

But  an  individual  would  not  be  described 
completely  even  if  it  were  possible  to  attain 
this  ideal,  for  he  is  more  than  a  mere  collec- 
tion of  variables;  he  is  a  unique  whole,  in 
which  the  parts  are  balanced  in  just  such  a  way 
as  to  make  this  particular  individual.  Analy- 
sis fails  to  find  the  whole  nature  of  a  man,  just 
as  a  description  of  the  features  one  by  one 
would  fail  to  be  a  description  of  that  whole 
we  mean  when  we  speak  of  a  face.  Two  faces 
very  much  alike  in  the  analysis  would  be  very 
different  in  the  total;  so  two  individuals  sim- 
ilar in  the  analysis  may  be  different  when  ap- 


NATURE  OF  INDIVIDUALITY  6 

predated  as  wholes;  when  they  are  judged 
with  reference  to  their  values,  social  and  eth- 
ical. Conversely  two  people  much  alike  in 
their  social  and  ethical  values  may  be  quite 
different  in  their  composition,  a  similarity  of 
result  being  produced  by  a  different  combina- 
tion of  elements. 

But  this  descriptive  method,  even  when  both 
analytic  and  synthetic  points  of  view  are  taken, 
does  not  yet  tell  us  entirely  what  is  meant  by 
an  individual;  for  a  person  is  not  only  some- 
thing that  can  be  analyzed  and  described,  but 
he  is,  from  birth  to  death,  a  concrete  series  of 
connected  events,  only  a  part  of  which  can  be 
understood  by  examining  his  nature  as  a  sum 
of  parts,  or  even  as  a  member  of  a  group;  foi^ 
in  a  measure  these  events  are  the  result  of 
forces  not  contained  in  the  individual  at  all, 
and  in  some  cases  the  whole  career  seems  to 
hinge  upon  a  single  event. 

An  individual  therefore  is  not  only  a  bundle 
of  elements  interrelated  with  each  other;  he  is  a 
whole  which  can  be  described  and  judged  as 
such;  and  he  is  that  which  he  appears  to  him- 
self to  be,  a  self  with  a  life  history  made  up  of 
concrete  events,  some  of  which  are  the  fulfill- 
ment of  his  own  purposes,  some  the  result  of 
forces  and  purposes  which  he  does  not  control. 
All  of  these  aspects  of  the  individual  must  be 
observed,  in  their  relations  to  each  other,  if  an 


6  '  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

insight  into  the  meaning  of  individuality  is  to 
be  obtained.  An  individual  can  be  understood 
only  by  examining  him  from  all  of  these  view- 
points. 

Making  now  a  division  of  subject  matter  for 
the  purposes  of  observing  diilerences  of  in- 
dividuals, there  appears  to  be  a  sharp  distinc- 
tion between  traits  of  mind,  and  traits  of  body. 
Both  the  body  and  mind  seem  to  be  made  up  of 
parts  or  functions  so  joined  that,  although 
they  can  be  observed  separately,  there  are  many 
relations  among  them. 

Both  common  observation  and  scientific  study 
show  that  in  bodily  traits  individuals  differ 
greatly;  this  is  certainly  true  of  all  parts  of 
the  body  that  can  be  observed,  and  anatomists 
and  physiologists  declare  that  differences  are 
quite  as  great  in  those  internal  parts  that  are 
concealed  from  ordinary  observation,  even  in 
the  minute  structures  and  processes  that  can 
be  examined  only  by  the  microscope  and  by 
chemical  methods. 

The  most  casual  observation  shows,  too,  that 
there  are  many  and  great  differences  among  in- 
dividuals in  their  mental  traits.  The  mind  like 
the  body  seems  to  be  made  up  of  parts  that 
can  vary  independently  of  each  other;  and 
yet,  though  all  combinations  are  thinkable, 
some  appear  to  be  found  more  frequently  than 
others. 


NATURE  OF  INDIVIDUALITY  ^    7 

Not  only  when  viewed  in  this  analytical  way 
do  individuals  appear  to  differ,  but  when  they 
are  considered  synthetically  with  reference  to 
their  personality  as  a  whole,  and  to  those  as- 
pects of  it  which  they  present  to  us  in  the 
practical  relations  of  life :  their  values  and  effi- 
ciencies :  aspects  of  the  individual  in  recognition 
of  which  we  have  a  rich  vocabulary  of  descrip- 
tion, approbation,  and  disapproval. 

Lastly,  from  that  point  of  view  which  we 
take  in  regarding  an  individual  as  a  series  of 
concrete  events,  the  greatest  differences  of  all 
are  found,  some  of  which  we  can  understand 
by  referring  to  the  traits  of  the  individual,  or 
to  the  logic  of  events  in  which  he  participates, 
others  of  which  seem  to  be  mysterious  dispen- 
sations of  Providence  or  the  result  of  fortui- 
tous combinations  of  circumstance. 

The  study  of  individuality  then  is  no  mere 
observation  of  the  likenesses  and  differences 
that  appear  to  superficial  view,  but  it  is  a  com- 
plex problem,  a  part,  on  the  one  hand,  of  the 
biological  problem  of  variation,  on  the  other 
related  to  problems  of  general  psychology, 
ethics,  and  sociology.  Variation  in  the  human 
species  is  presumably  subject  to  the  same  laws 
that  prevail  in  producing  variability  elsewhere ; 
but  the  complexity  of  the  human  organism 
nJakes  the  study  of  human  variability  pecu- 
liarly difficult.    It  would  be  suspected  at  the 


8  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

outset  that  the  study  of  an  object  so  complex 
as  a  human  individual  would  be  beset  with 
many  difficulties,  and  in  the  actual  pursuit  of 
it  that  suspicion  is  not  likely  to  be  proven  un- 
founded. If  we  examine  the  causes  that  pro- 
duce individuality  the  explanation  of  the 
complexity  of  the  problem  is  soon  found.  Two 
great  divisions  of  fact  must  be  considered;  the 
factors  of  heredity  and  of  environment.  Each 
individual  is  a  product  of  two  long  lines  of 
ancestry;  he  is  a  mixture  of  elements  derived 
from  both,  a  sum  of  innumerable  factors.  But 
he  is  not  only  a  complex  organism,  but  a  plastic 
one,  and  environment  at  the  earliest  moment 
of  life  begins  to  play  a  part  in  still  further  es- 
tablishing his  individuality.  The  human  being, 
having  both  greater  complexity  of  structure 
than  other  species,  greater  plasticity,  and  a 
longer  period  of  infancy,  and  at  the  same  time 
being  influenced  by  a  more  complex  environ- 
ment, becomes  finally  the  most  individual  of  all 
creatures. 

But  this  process  of  creating  individuality 
has  not  ceased  with  our  present  state  of  so- 
ciety but  goes  on  continually  and  as  specializa- 
tion increases  in  modern  life  individuals  tend 
apparently  to  become  more  complex,  and  at 
the  same  time,  to  differ  from  one  another  in 
more  ways.  An  estrangement  of  individuals 
from  one  another  and  an  increasing  difficulty 
of  mutual  understanding  therefore  go  hand  in 


NATURE  OF  INDIVIDUALITY  9 

hand  with  the  increasing  cooperation  that  is 
more  often  noticed  as  the  result  of  social 
progress.  This  increasing  individuality  has 
both  advantages  and  disadvantages,  consid- 
ered from  the  standpoint  of  the  interests 
of  society.  Greater  specialization  makes  for 
greater  efficiency  and  a  social  life  richer  in 
possibilities  of  moral  and  social  progress;  but 
it  also,  by  isolating  the  individual,  increases 
the  difficulty  of  his  personal  problems,  and- in 
dealing  with  others  he  tends  to  lack  more  and 
more  adequate  knowledge  of  them.  No  doubt 
the  increasing  estrangement  from  our  fellows 
is  in  part  compensated  and  overcome  by  the  in- 
creased definiteness  and  specialization  of  our 
relations  with  them,  but  the  fact  remains  that 
in  many  departments  of  life  there  is  a  grow- 
ing necessity  for  a  better  knowledge  of  individ- 
uals and  better  methods  of  studying  them. 
The  result  is  that  the  study  of  the  individual  is 
itself  becoming  a  specialty,  and  the  specialist 
comes  to  mediate  between  the  practical  worker, 
and  the  object  of  his  labor.  Indications  of 
this  movement  are  to  be  found  in  education  in 
the  development  of  the  research  department 
and  of  the  psychological,  medical,  and  anthropo- 
metrical  specialist.  In  the  profession  of  medi- 
cine a  class  is  coming  to  be  set  apart  for  the 
special  work  of  scientific  diagnosis,  more  exact 
than  can  be  carried  on  by  the  busy  practitioner. 
It  is  shown  in  literature  by  the  rapidly  increas- 


10  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

ing  interest  in  biography  as  a  form  of  litera- 
ture: and  in  all  the  sciences  that  deal  with 
human  nature  there  is  a  trend  of  interest  toward 
the  problems  of  the  individual.  Stern  has  de- 
clared enthusiastically  that  individuality  is  to  be 
the  great  problem  of  the  twentieth  century ;  it  is 
certainly  one  of  the  fields  in  which  scientific 
research  is  likely  to  be  active  in  the  near  fu- 
ture, for  many  interests  seem  to  be  converging 
to  a  center  in  the  study  of  the  problems  of 
the  individual,  both  in  their  practical  and  their 
scientific  aspects. 

REFERENCES 

If  one  wishes  to  enter  into  philosophic  questions 
of  the  nature  of  individuality  works  like  The  World 
and  the  Individual,  by  Royce,  and  Social  and  Ethi- 
cal Interpretations  in  Mental  Development,  by  Bald- 
win should  be  read.  These  are  profound  and  sys- 
tematic works  and  are  intended,  it  is  presumed,  only 
for  the  serious  student.  No  better  introduction  to  the 
biological  problems  of  variation  can  be  found  than 
Darwin's  Origin  of  Species.  The  articles  of  Pearson 
and  others  published  in  Biometrika  will  be  interesting 
to  those  interested  in  the  mathematical  aspects  of 
variation.  Some  of  the  best  literature  of  individual- 
ity was  written  without  intention  to  throw  light  upon 
its  scientific  problems.  The  reading  of  biography  will 
be  an  excellent  accompaniment  to  ob.sei-vation  and  ex- 
periment. Autobiographies  like  Herbert  Spencer's, 
and  such  books  as  Amiel's  Joni'nal,  the  Confessions  of 
Rousseau,  the  Journal  ui"  Marie  Bashkirtseff  are  ex- 


SCIENCE  OF  INDIVIDUALS  11 

eellent  portrayals  of  types  of  human  character. 
Books  that  contain  studies  of  national  characteristics 
are  helpful.  Fiction  is  valuable  but  to  a  less  degree, 
for  though  its  characters  may  be  vivid  they  are  often 
untrue  to  nature.  The  study  in  detail  of  the  work  of 
anyone  who  has  expressed  himself  freely  in  any  artis- 
tic or  literary  form,  is  a  study  in  personality.  Books 
and  articles  that  pertain  directly  to  the  study  of  in- 
dividuals are  numerous;  they  are  written  in  many 
languages  and  from  many  points  of  view.  A  few 
that  seem  most  important  or  that  are  most  readily 
accessible  will  be  mentioned  in  connection  with  special 
topics. 

II 

INDIVIDUAL-STUDY   AS   A   SCIENCE 

The  study  of  individuals  appears  to  be  one 
of  the  great  scientific  problems  of  the  day, 
related  to  and  involved  in  the  work  of  various 
sciences,  that  have  for  their  purpose  the  in- 
vestigation of  man.  There  are  many  special 
problems  of  individuality,  but  the  whole  sub- 
ject can  be  brought  for  discussion  under  four 
general  topics:  (1)  The  description  of  individ- 
uals, including  analysis  of  the  organism  into 
its  variables  and  the  measure  of  these  variables 
and  the  correlation  among  them;  (2)  Study  of 
the  causes  and  conditions  of  differences  among 
individuals  such  as  heredity  and  environment, 
and  the  study  of  the  genesis  of  traits  in  the 
individual  and  the  race;  (3)  Diagnosis  of  in- 


12  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

dividnals,  that  is,  the  development  and  use  of 
methods  of  testing  individuals  to  discover  their 
characteristics,  abilities,  and  standing;  (4)  Ap- 
plication of  these  results  to  the  practical  treat- 
ment of  individuals;  that  is,  the  development 
of  an  individual  pedagogy,  using  the  term  in  a 
wide  sense. 

The  first,  or  central,  problem  of  individuality 
is  the  descriptive,  a  problem  that  is  likely  to 
engage  the  interest  of  investigators  for  a  long 
time  to  come.  There  are  already  many  con- 
flicting standpoints,  for  the  individual  is  a 
meeting  place  of  many  interests.  A  complete 
descriptive  science  of  the  individual  must  in- 
clude : 

(1)  Analysis  and  measurement  of  the  in- 
dividual regarded  as  a  complex  of  variable 
traits ;  the  establishment  of  norms  or  standards 
for  each  of  these  traits  or  elements  and  the  man- 
ner of  variability  of  the  traits  about  their  norms. 
This  must  include  the  study  of  both  mental 
and  physical  traits.  If  psychology  and  physi- 
ology were  sufficiently  advanced  so  that  these 
elements  were  known  this  problem  would  be 
comparatively  simple,  but  this  is  by  no  means 
the  case,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  general 
sciences  of  psychology  and  physiology  will 
never  supply  this  want.  The  problem  of 
description  is  still  further  complicated  by  the 
manner  in  which  variables  enter  into  apparently 
inextricable    combinations    with    each    other. 


SCIENCE  OF  INDIVIDUALS  13 

Always  therefore  with  the  isolation  and  meas- 
urement of  the  elements  must  go  investigation 
of  the  relations  between  them,  of  the  manner 
in  which  they  are  coordinated  to  produce  com- 
binations or  types. 

(2)  It  has  already  been  shown  that  this 
method  of  approaching  the  study  of  individual- 
ity is  not  entirely  satisfactory ;  partly  because 
the  analysis  of  the  individual  into  elements  and 
the  measurement  of  the  elements  is  an  ideal  not 
to  be  reached  in  actual  practice,  but  also  be- 
cause this  method  of  study  leaves  out  of  account 
entirely  some  of  the  most  distinguishing  traits 
of  individuality.  Methods  must  be  devised  for 
studying  the  individual  from  the  standpoints 
of  practical  life,  and  of  the  sciences  of  ethics 
and  sociology.  The  essential  variables  of 
those  qualities  of  the  individual  that  represent 
or  constitute  his  values  in  relation  to  his  fel- 
lows must  be  discovered,  and  methods  devised 
for  observing  and  completely  describing  them. 

(3)  The  life  history  of  the  individual  must 
be  described;  that  is,  he  must  be  studied  from 
the  biographical  point  of  view,  with  reference 
to  the  most  determining  events  of  his  life.  For 
this  point  of  view,  too,  there  is  as  yet  but  im- 
perfect preparation  in  the  general  sciences  of 
human  life.  Something  can  be  derived  from 
ethics,  from  the  study  of  religion,  and  social 
science,  but  all  must  be  adapted  to  the  study  of 
individuals.     The  essential  events  of  the  lives  of 


14  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

individuals  must  be  determined  with  reference 
to  the  meaning  of  life  as  a  whole  so  far  as  we 
can  know  it  from  our  limited  human  outlook 
upon  it.  This  in  a  sense  is  the  metaphysical 
attitude  toward  the  problem  of  individuality. 

A  second  step  always  follows  the  descriptive 
phase  of  a  science;  the  explanatory.  The  sec- 
ond problem  of  individuality  is  the  investiga- 
tion of  the  relations  of  differences  among  hu- 
man beings  to  other  facts,  and  to  other  laws. 
This  means  a  study  of  the  causes  of  differences, 
the  working  of  the  laws  of  evolution,  genesis, 
and  variability  to  determine  how  they  produce 
types  and  differences,  in  what  direction  differ- 
entiation of  types  is  proceeding,  the  effects  of 
environment,  the  relations  of  genesis  of  traits  in 
the  individual  and  in  the  race.  The  develop- 
ment of  characteristics  in  children  must  be 
observed  and  recorded ;  the  forces  that  have  pro- 
duced differentiation  must  be  studied  in  retro- 
spect by  the  adult.  Finally  the  whole  subject 
must  be  interpreted  in  the  light  of  the  unified 
views  of  life  that  are  obtained  in  the  philosophic 
and  other  sciences. 

The  third  problem  of  individuality  —  the 
diagnostic  —  involves  the  application  of  knowl- 
edge derived  from  descriptive  and  explanatory 
studies  of  individuality  to  the  definite  practical 
study  of  particular  individuals.  When  types 
and  varieties  are  known,  and  norms  established, 
and  the  relative  importance  of  characteristics, 


SCIENCE  OF  INDIVIDUALS  15 

and  their  dependence  upon  one  another  are  de- 
termined, methods  must  then  be  devised  for 
discovering  the  essential  traits  of  any  individ- 
ual as  quickly  and  as  simply  as  possible,  in 
order  to  understand  in  a  practical  way,  his  abil- 
ities and  values,  to  predict  reasonably  his 
future,  and  to  have  a  basis  for  rationally  con- 
trolling his  life.  That  such  a  diagnostic  of  in- 
dividuality must  wait  for  the  development  of 
description  and  explanation  seems  inevitable; 
yet  in  a  way  this  is  the  most  pressing  of  the 
problems  of  individuality.  It  is  the  task  that 
has  often  been  taken  up  in  mental-test  schemes 
and  other  methods  of  diagnosing  individuality, 
all  of  which  have  failed  or  have  been  unsatis- 
factory largely  because  they  have  made  the 
error  of  supposing  that  the  characteristics 
which  they  attempted  to  test  were  better  known 
than  they  actually  were.  This  is  precisely  the 
problem  of  the  old  phrenology,  which  divided 
the  individual  into  a  score  or  two  of  definite 
traits,  and  tried  to  determine  the  degree  in 
which  he  possessed  each  of  these  traits  by  ob- 
serving the  size  of  the  skull  compartment  in 
which  they  were  supposed  to  be  represented. 
The  scheme  was  very  simple,  but  it  ignored  the 
fact  that  even  the  most  fundamental  traits  were 
but  imperfectly  known  and  that  they  must  be 
known  before  the  individual  could  be  tested. 
Other  attempts  to  make  practical  systems  of 
diagnosis  like  palmistry,  chirography,  and  as- 


16  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

trology  (which  pretends  to  find  the  signs  of 
character  not  in  the  individual  himself,  but 
in  the  stars)  are  to  a  greater  extent  guilty 
of  the  same  errors.  Eventually  there  will  be 
a  diagnostic  that  will  be  both  scientific  and 
practical.  When  characteristics  are  sufficiently 
well  known  simple  methods  for  studying  those 
that  are  most  central  to  individuality  can 
probably  be  devised.  Whether  the  ideal  of  a 
short,  perfectly  simple,  and  accurate  means  of 
measuring  or  psychographing  an  individual 
will  ever  be  reached  it  is  difficult  to  say.  Any 
such  system  would,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  be 
a  makeshift,  a  substitute  for  more  detailed 
knowledge,  but  it  is  likely  that  in  time  it  will 
be  possible,  by  a  fairly  brief  examination,  to 
discover  the  most  essential  traits  of  a  person, 
and  that  the  methods  will  be  simple  enough  to 
be  applied  generally  in  practical  examinations 
for  all  kinds  of  advancement  and  appointment, 
and  for  various  uses  of  education  and  medicine. 
The  fourth  problem  is  the  practical  one  of 
applying  knowledge  of  individuality  in  general 
and  the  result  of  tests  to  the  practical  control 
of  individuals.  There  are  two  problems  in- 
volved: (1)  To  discover  or  to  decide  upon  that 
which  it  is  desired  to  accomplish  for  an  indi- 
vidual, decisions  that  are  determined  partly  by 
knowledge  about  the  individual,  and  partly  by 
the  ideals  of  the  society  in  which  ho  lives;  (2) 
To  discover  the  best  means  of  reaching  the  de- 


VARIATIONAL  METHOD  17 

sired  end,  that  is  to  construct  an  individual 
pedagogy.  Both  of  these  problems  are  inter- 
related in  various  ways  with  the  problems  of 
general  pedagogy,  but  they  are  also  individ- 
ual, and  must  be  treated  with  reference  to 
the  facts  of  variability  among  human  individ- 
uals. 

Such,  briefly  stated,  is  the  ideal  of  the  science 
of  individual-study.  Every  science  tends  to 
pass  through  stages  similar  to  those  men- 
tioned ;  descriptive,  explanatory,  and  finally  the 
stage  of  application  and  practice.  These  steps 
represent,  it  is  true,  an  ideal  course  of  pro- 
cedure. Actually,  the  process  is  more  complex 
and  confused,  for  the  advancement  of  a  science 
is  not  determined  by  a  consensus  of  opinion, 
but  progress  is  made  by  more  or  less  detached 
and  independent  efforts.  In  a  general  way, 
however,  a  science  proceeds  from  the  descrip- 
tive stage  to  the  explanatory,  and  then  to  the 
practical. 


in 

THE    VARIATIONAL    METHOD 

The  descriptive  problem  has  been  shown  to 
be  the  central  problem  of  the  study  of  indi- 
viduality. Individuals  must  be  described  be- 
fore the  causes  of  their  differences  can  be 
understood,  or  practical  consequences  deduced. 


18  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

Individual-study  is  also  seen  to  be  more  than 
a  mere  observing  of  superficial  traits  of  body 
and  mind.  The  individual  as  a  whole  must 
be  studied  in  all  his  aspects,  from  the  stand- 
point of  all  the  sciences  that  deal  with  human 
nature,  and  from  all  these  sciences  methods 
must  be  drawn  and  modified  to  meet  the  special 
requirements  of  application  to  the  study  of  in- 
dividuals. It  so  happens  that  in  nearly  all  the 
sciences  of  human  nature  a  strong  current  of 
interest  has  turned,  in  recent  years,  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  variational  or  individual  problem. 
The  recent  interest  in  numerical  problems  of 
biology,  which  has  become  an  important  phase 
of  that  science,  will  illustrate  the  general  trend. 
Variability  is  being  measured  not  only  for  all 
important  traits  of  the  human  body,  but  of 
plants  and  animals.  Almost  all  the  conspicu- 
ous traits  of  the  human  body  have  already  been 
so  treated,  and  the  method  has  even  been  ap- 
plied to  some  mental  characteristics.  Pearson 
thinks  that  all  traits,  when  accurately  enough 
measured,  and  a  sufficient  number  of  cases  are 
taken,  will  show  variation  around  a  norm,  ac- 
cording to  the  law  of  probability,  and  that  dis- 
continuous variation  and  types  are,  for  the 
most  part,  due  to  insufficient  number  of  cases, 
inexact  methods,  or  imperfect  analysis  of  the 
characters  to  be  studied:  that  discontinuous 
variation,  if  it  exists  at  all,  is  so  infrequent 
that  it  can  be  neglected  in  theory.     He  thinks, 


VARIATIONAL  METHOD  19 

too,  that  every  idea  of  Darwin,  such  as  varia- 
tion, natural  selection,  sexual  selection,  inherit- 
ance, prepotency,  reversion,  seems  capable  of 
exact  mathematical  definition  and  statistical 
treatment. 

The  anatomical  problems  of  variability  are 
much  further  advanced  than  others  and  we  now 
have  a  fairly  good  numerical  account  of  the 
main  features  of  the  external  configuration  of 
the  body :  some  work  has  also  been  done  in  the 
study  of  variability  of  internal  organs,  and  the 
correlation  of  one  organ  with  another.  Meas- 
urement of  the  body  has  been  a  problem  of 
interest  to  two  different  classes  of  workers,  bi- 
ologists and  anthropometrists,  the  latter  work- 
ing especially  in  the  interest  of  practical  appli- 
cation of  measurements  to  the  physical  train- 
ing of  youth,  and  also  studying  racial  differ- 
ences. 

In  physiology,  work  along  variational  lines 
is  less  advanced  although  many  studies  have 
been  made  of  the  more  accessible  functions,  such 
as  respiration,  circulation,  metabolism,  temper- 
ature, tonus  rhythms  in  muscles,  rapidity  of 
nerve  impulse,  secretion  and  excretion. 

Pathologists  naturally  approach  their  prob- 
lems with  some  conception  of  types  and  varia- 
tion. Already,  true  variational  methods  and 
conceptions  are  beginning  to  change  the  meth- 
ods of  studying  disease  and  of  regarding 
disease  processes.     There  is  a  growing  change 


20  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

of  viewpoint  in  the  direction  of  regarding  the 
variation  of  physiological  functions  from  the 
normal  rather  than  the  presence  of  germs  or 
disease  processes  as  the  main  factor  in  the  pro- 
duction of  diseases.  On  this  consideration  the 
constitution  of  the  individual  as  a  whole,  and 
his  life  history  are  taken  into  account,  rather 
than  the  habits  and  life  history  of  the  germ,  or 
the  microscopical  examination  of  the  patho- 
logical process.  Individuals  must  be  studied, 
in  order  to  satisfy  this  new  turn  in  pathological 
research;  they  must  be  regarded  as  members 
of  a  group,  as  a  sum  of  variables  capable  of 
>  departing  in  all  degrees  from  a  norm  or  aver- 
age. So  in  branches  of  medicine  like  psychi- 
atry we  hear  much  about  the  physiological 
activity  of  cells,  changes  in  irritability,  causing 
cells  to  act  more  slowly  or  more  sensitively, 
and  in  other  fundamental  characteristics  of 
living  matter.  Pathologic  types  are  explained 
as  the  result  of  departures  from  the  norm  in 
the  few  elementary  variables,  and  in  the  man- 
ner of  their  combination. 

Other  organs  and  functions  of  the  body  than 
the  nervous  system  are  coming  to  be  regarded 
in  this  same  way.  Kraus  and  Martins,  for  ex- 
ample, have  been  studying  types  of  efficiency 
of  heart  and  stomach;  and  thoughtful  physi- 
cians look  forward  to  the  time  when  a  complete 
description  of  a  man  in  terms  of  functional 
efficiency  of  his  parts  or  physiological  systems, 


VARIATIONAL  METHOD  21 

including  his  conscious  adaptations,  will  be  pos- 
sible. The  great  advantage  of  such  a  concep- 
tion for  the  physician  is  obvious;  it  would 
enable  him  to  study  in  cases  small  departures 
from  normal  activity,  to  trace  the  development 
of  individuals  toward  abnormal  functioning, 
and  to  understand  in  their  origin  and  as  they 
appear  in  small  departures  those  disease  types 
that  later  appear  in  pronounced  form.  This 
would  include  the  study  of  those  diatheses  that 
are  the  foundations  of  physical  diseases,  and 
the  types  of  constitution  that  result  in  mental 
disease:  such  as  the  psychasthenic,  neuras- 
thenic, hypochondriacal,  hysterical,  epileptic, 
the  deterioration  type,  the  maniacal,  paranoiac. 

Within  psychology  proper  the  development 
toward  what  has  been  called  the  variational 
method  or  study  of  individual  differences  has 
appeared  in  many  departments;  though  the 
studies  are  as  yet  fragmentary  and  the  actual 
results  meager,  and  there  is  wide  divergence 
among  psychologists  in  their  conception  of  the 
whole  problem,  there  is  here  the  clearest  notion 
of  a  science  of  individual-study,  and  the  most 
promising  state  of  interest.  The  following 
chapter  will  relate,  in  some  detail,  the  history 
and  present  status  of  the  variational  method  in 
the  field  of  general  psychology. 

The  same  method  of  attacking  problems  is  on 
the  increase  also  in  the  special  psychological 
and  philosophical  sciences.    In  the  science  of 


22  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

religion  comparative  methods  are  being  used, 
not  only  in  the  study  of  racial  types  of  religious 
beliefs,  but  in  the  investigation  of  varieties  of 
religious  experience  among  individuals.  In 
ethics,  too,  similar  lines  of  attack  are  appearing. 

In  ethnology  the  study  of  differences  in  traits 
among  races  of  mankind  necessarily  adopts  the 
conceptions  of  varial)ility ;  the  ethnologist  is 
particularly  interested  in  discovering  those 
traits  that  are  least  variable,  and  so  of  most 
value  in  classifying  the  human  species  into 
varieties. 

In  sociology  the  problems  of  variability  are 
at  the  front.  Questions  of  the  formation  of 
national  types,  the  study  of  traits  of  various 
social  and  economic  groups  require  the  concep- 
tion of  the  problem  that  has  been  called  the 
variational,  and  the  interpretation  of  the  facts 
in  accordance  with  the  general  laws  of  evolu- 
tion. Besides  these  normal  groups,  the  crim- 
inal, and  the  socially  defective  generally,  must 
be  studied  as  members  of  a  variational  series 
rather  than  merely  as  diseased  or  abnormal 
persons.  The  victims  of  alcohol,  the  unfit,  and 
the  vicious  of  all  kinds  must  so  be  considered. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  all  through  the  sciences 
that  deal  with  human  nature  the  biological  con- 
ception of  variability  applies,  and  that  methods 
are  being  worked  out  which,  though  specially 
applicable  to  the  use  of  special  scientific  prob- 
lems, have  a  common  ground.     These  methods 


VARIATIONAL  METHOD  23 

need  to  be  brought  together  and  considered 
with  reference  to  their  applicability  to  the  study 
of  individuals  as  such  in  a  systematic  manner. 

The  methods  that  have  thus  far  been  applied 
to  the  study  of  individuals  can  be  grouped  into 
four  classes:  (1)  Medical  and  physiological 
methods;  (2)  Anthropological  methods;  (3) 
Psychological  methods;  (4)  General  observa- 
tion and  pedagogical  methods. 

From  the  medical  interest  in  individuals  a 
science  of  diagnosis  has  arisen  that  has  gradu- 
ally been  extended  into  new  subjects,  until  now 
the  medical  methods  of  examining  individuals 
form  one  of  the  most  scientific  aspects  of  the 
subject.  Chemical  and  physiological  methods 
have  been  worked  out  for  measuring  and  test- 
ing physical  functions,  some  of  them  adapted 
merely  to  discovering  the  presence  or  absence 
of  disease,  others  suitable  for  testing  normal 
functions,  and  measuring  variability.  Medical 
diagnosis  has  extended  to  the  mental  life,  and 
the  study  of  types  of  mental  disease  and  defi- 
ciency has  led  to  more  or  less  complete  sche- 
mata for  the  study  of  the  normal  mental  life, 
especially  the  temperament,  the  emotions,  and 
habits.  A  thorough  medical  examination  now, 
at  its  best,  includes  a  broad  examination  of  an 
individual  and  comprises  investigation  of  both 
mental  and  physical  functions. 

From  the  anthropologists  have  come  methods 
for  exact  measurement  and  description  of  physi- 


24  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

eal  conformation,  and  of  some  mental  traits 
that  are  distinctive  of  racial  types.  Antliropo- 
metrists  have  developed  and  refined  these 
methods  and  applied  them  to  the  problem  of 
physical  diagnosis  and  to  the  measurement  of 
development  of  normal  and  abnormal  individ- 
uals. 

Psychologists  have  supplied  many  methods 
for  the  study  of  individuals.  Their  first  at- 
tempt was  to  devise  a  short  series  of  tests  or 
experiments  based  upon  the  divisions  of  mind 
made  by  analytic  psychology,  with  the  expecta- 
tion that  these  tests  could  be  used  in  analyzing 
an  individual  completely  enough  for  practical 
purposes.  It  was  soon  seen  that  these  methods 
failed  to  strike  at  the  essential  traits  of  the 
individual,  and  attention  was  turned  rather  to 
the  more  complex  functions,  using  methods  in 
part  new,  and  unknown  in  general  psychology, 
and  in  part  adapting  methods  of  general  psy- 
chology to  the  requirements  for  studying  indi- 
vidual differences.  This  work  has  been  par- 
tially successful  in  establishing  methods  that 
have  some  practical  bearing  and  at  the  same 
time  are  exact  enough  for  the  purposes  of 
scientific  investigation.  Meantime  the  whole 
problem  of  individuality  has  been  seen  in  larger 
ways  and  now  the  aim  of  psychologists  is  to 
attack  the  problem  systematically  and  to  devise 
methods  for  a  complete  description  of  mental 
traits ;  that  is,  to  work  out  a  science  of  psycho- 


VARIATIONAL  METHOD  25 

graphy  or  descriptive  method  for  the  study  of 
all  those  characteristics  that  can  in  any  way 
come  into  consideration  in  the  study  of  individ- 
uality. Materials  for  such  a  comprehensive 
methodology  are  scattered  throughout  the  liter- 
ature of  general  psychology,  and  methods  that 
have  been  used  in  general  problems  can  readily 
be  adapted  in  many  cases  to  the  study  of  in- 
dividual differences.  Many  of  these  methods 
require  complicated  apparatus,  and  such  facili- 
ties as  can  be  had  only  in  a  laboratory  supplied 
with  electrical  equipment. 

Into  a  fourth  group  can  be  placed  those  meth- 
ods that  have  been  employed  in  the  study  of 
individuals  in  the  moral  and  social  sciences, 
for  the  purposes  of  education,  and  also  those 
methods  that  have  been  worked  out  from 
the  standpoint  of  biography.  They  are  largely 
observational  methods  and  they  are  but  little 
coordinated  or  developed,  but  they  represent  at- 
tempts to  approach  the  study  of  the  individual 
from  those  wide  standpoints  in  which  he  is 
regarded  in  his  social  and  ethical  relationships, 
and  as  a  unique  person. 

All  these  various  methods  must  eventually 
be  incorporated  into  a  descriptive  science  of 
individuality  which,  from  the  nature  of  the  case, 
cannot  be  confined  within  the  limits  of  any  pres- 
ent science,  for  both  mental  and  physical  traits 
must  be  investigated,  and  no  way  of  regarding 
individuality  must  be  neglected  in  a  complete 


26  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

descrii)tive  scheme.  Yet,  for  reasons  that  are 
readily  discoverable,  the  study  of  individuality 
is  more  closely  related  to  psychology  than  to 
any  other  science.  In  the  past  most  of  the  the- 
oretical formulation  of  individual-study  and 
most  of  the  outlines  for  procedure  have  come 
from  psychology.  For  this  reason,  it  is  impor- 
tant to  trace  at  some  length  the  history  of 
individual  or  differential  psychology;  and 
finally  to  examine  the  claim  of  psychology  to  be 
the  foundation  of  the  science  of  individuality. 


IV 

STUDY   OF   INDIVIDUALITY   WITHIN    PSYCHOLOGY 

The  history  and  present  status  of  the  prob- 
lems of  variation  and  individuality  within 
psychology  need  special  attention,  for  it  is  in 
psychology,  as  has  been  said,  that  the  problem 
of  individuality  seems  to  center.  There  has 
been,  and  is,  in  psycholog}^  great  diversity  of 
opinion  with  regard  to  the  whole  matter  of 
individual-study.  Over  some  of  the  funda- 
mental conceptions  there  is  still  confusion,  and 
even  plain  contradiction.  The  main  differences 
of  attitude  can  be  disclosed  best  by  considering 
briefly  the  work  of  German,  French,  P^nglish, 
and  American  psychologists,  with  special  refer- 
ence to  the  experimental  investigation  of  differ- 
ences. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ASPECTS  27 

Exact  work  in  differential  psychology  ap- 
pears to  have  begun  with  the  work  of  Kraepelin 
and  his  school.  Kraepelin  was  led  to  the  study 
of  normal  mental  differences  by  the  study  of 
insanity  and  nervous  diseases.  In  order  to 
analyze  the  constitution  of  certain  types  of 
defectives  which  he  thinks  are  different  at  the 
very  beginning  of  life,  he  is  brought  to  the 
differential  study  of  various  traits  of  normal 
people.  His  study  of  the  fatigue  curve  is  an 
example  of  the  method,  and  is  an  instance  of  ex- 
cellent results  in  the  investigation  of  individual 
differences.  He  succeeded  in  isolating  several 
factors  of  fatigue,  each  in  itself  independently 
variable,  and  in  establishing  norms  and  types, 
with  which  the  abnormal  can  be  compared. 

Oehrn's  work,  done  in  Kraepelin 's  laboratory, 
was  one  of  the  earliest  contributions  to  indi- 
vidual psychology,  and  was  a  product  of  the 
conception  just  referred  to.  His  aim  was  to 
obtain  norms  for  some  of  the  common  mental 
processes,  such  as  letter  counting,  search  for 
certain  letters,  learning  of  digits,  marking  in- 
correct spelling,  adding  of  single  place  figures, 
writing  from  dictation,  reading  at  maximal 
speed  —  and  then  to  compute  the  relationship 
of  these  activities  in  the  individual,  and,  if  pos- 
sible, to  discover  mental  types.  Although  the 
actual  results  were  not  so  conclusive  as  could 
have  been  wished,  the  method  itself  seems  to  be 
promising. 


28  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

At  the  present  time  the  most  comprehensive 
study  of  individual  differences  in  Germany  is 
being  made  by  Stern.  He,  too,  approaches  the 
subject  from  the  standpoint  of  general  psychol- 
ogy. The  descriptive  problem,  he  maintains, 
comes  first;  we  must  first  find  the  differences 
before  they  can  be  studied  in  any  other  way. 
And  in  order  to  discover  them  a  beginning  must 
be  made  with  the  simplest  mental  functions 
such  as  have  been  discovered  by  general  psy- 
chology; then  variations  in  the  working  of 
simple  psychological  laws  must  be  investigated ; 
the  arrangement  of  simple  elements  into  types, 
and  the  simple  types  into  more  complex  types 
must  next  be  known;  and  finally  insight  into 
individuality  itself,  which  is  a  combination  of 
t}'pes,  must  be  obtained.  It  would  be  hoped 
that  a  few  elementary  variables  could  be  found, 
the  combination  of  which  produces  the  complex 
differences  of  individuality.  Two  methods  are 
allowable  in  investigating  types:  (1)  By  find- 
ing out  how  the  elementary  functions  vary  to- 
gether, new  types  will  be  discovered;  (2)  by 
analysis  of  such  types  as  are  already  known, 
variables  among  elementary  traits  are  to  be 
discovered.  There  are  many  ways  of  approach- 
ing the  whole  problem  of  individuality,  and 
among  thom,  according  to  Stern,  six  promising 
methods:  (1)  Self-observation;  (2)  observa- 
tion of  others;  (3)  study  of  literature;  (4)  study 
of  civilization;    (5)    syllabus  method;    (6)   ex- 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ASPECTS  29 

periment.  The  most  promising  of  these,  he 
thinks,  is  the  method  of  experiment,  and  he 
proceeds  to  outline  methods  for  the  study  of 
individuality  based  upon  the  achievements  of 
general  psychology;  although,  as  he  soon  dis- 
covers, the  methods  of  general  psychology  must 
be  adapted  to  these  special  purposes.  At  some 
points  present  psychology  seems  to  him  to  be 
adequate  for  the  study  of  individual  differ- 
ences ;  at  others  it  seems  to  be  of  little  service. 
Turning  to  the  study  of  individual  psychol- 
ogy in  France,  a  different  point  of  view  is 
found.  The  French  literature  of  the  subject  is 
rich  in  attempts  to  classify  characters,  but  these 
studies,  for  the  most  part,  have  not  led  to  sys- 
tematic investigation.  They  have,  however, 
determined  apparently  the  standpoint  of  indi- 
vidual psychology  in  France.  Paulhan's  sys- 
tem of  character-study  needs,  perhaps,  special 
mention,  though  it  represents  the  older  deduct- 
ive kind  of  work,  rather  than  the  experimental. 
Paulhan  bases  his  classification  of  characters 
upon  principles  of  philosophy.  An  individual 
is  made  up  of  both  concrete  and  abstract  ele- 
ments. The  concrete  traits  or  elements  are 
those  to  which  descriptive  adjectives  are  ap- 
plied: these  elements  combine  according  to 
psychological  laws,  and  the  combination  of  ele- 
ments accounts  for  the  abstract  elements. 
Characters  are  classified  according  to  four 
main  characteristics ;     (1)  The  degree  of  coher- 


30  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

ence  of  a  character  and  the  nature  of  the 
association  among  the  elements;  (2)  the  form 
of  the  elements  and  of  the  mind  as  a  whole ;  (3) 
the  presence  or  absence  of  particular  elements; 
(4)  the  manner  in  which  the  elements  act  to- 
gether as  a  whole;  their  subordination  one  to 
another. 

Kibot  also  approaches  the  study  of  individual 
difference  from  the  consideration  of  the  indi- 
vidual as  a  whole.  "There  is  more  in  the 
synthesis  than  in  the  analysis";  and  the  most 
distinguishing  traits  of  an  individual  are  just 
those  balances  of  function  that  can  never  be 
reached  by  the  study  of  elements.  Therefore 
the  methods  of  studying  individuals  are  not 
the  same  as  those  employed  in  investigation 
of  the  problems  of  analytic  psychology,  but 
must  be  directed  to  the  study  of  the  more  com- 
plex functions. 

Experimental  psychology  in  France  has  fol- 
lowed out  these  suggestions,  considering  the 
individual  as  a  whole  rather  than  as  a  sum  of 
items.  By  far  the  most  important  work  is  that 
of  Binet  and  his  school.  They  have  been  study- 
ing variability  and  correlation  for  many  years, 
and  have  gradually  been  perfecting  tests  that 
they  think  will  enable  them  to  make  a  compre- 
hensive psychograph  or  mental  diagnosis  of  an 
individual.  Their  method  has  been  to  study 
the  traits  that  most  characterize  a  person  in 
actual  life,  in  order  to  discover  those  central 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ASPECTS  31 

variables  with  which  other  traits  of  the  indi- 
vidual are  connected.  The  order  of  procedure 
has  been  to  study  many  qualities  in  one  or  a 
few  persons,  or  a  few  qualities  in  a  large  group. 
Some  of  the  results  of  these  methods,  for  ex- 
ample Binet's  comparative  study  of  the  intelli- 
gence of  two  children,  are  very  valuable 
contributions  to  the  psychology  of  mental  dif- 
ferences. «— 
The  psychological  studies  of  individuality 
that  have  been  made  in  England,  and  also  in 
America,  have  been  dominated  or  greatly  in- 
fluenced by  what  may  be  called  the  phrenological 
idea;  that  is,  the  hope  of  finding  some  simple 
tests  by  which  the  individual  may  be  measured 
and  the  result  of  which  will  stand  for  a  descrip- 
tion of  him  adapted  to  practical  use.  Although 
phrenology  did  not  originate  in  England,  it 
seems  to  have  taken  firm  root  there  and  to  have 
influenced  some  of  the  best  thinkers;  for  ex- 
ample, Spencer,  Mill,  Bain,  Wallace.  All  of 
these  discuss  the  subject  and  Wallace  maintains 
that  the  neglect  of  phrenology  is  one  of  the 
great  sins  of  omission  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. Both  in  England  and  America  elabo- 
rators  of  the  work  of  Gall  and  Spurzeim  have 
made  attempts  to  classify  mental  character- 
istics, and  to  show  the  interaction  of  traits  in 
the  formation  of  character.  Sizer  and  Dray- 
ton's "  Heads  and  Faces  "  is  a  good  example  of 
this  kind  of  work.     They  begin  with  a  modified 


32  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

form  of  the  ancient  doctrine  of  temperament, 
finding  three  great  systems  in  the  individual; 
the  motive  or  mechanical,  the  vital,  and  the 
mental  or  nervous.  They  then  proceed  to  de- 
scribe the  characteristics  of  the  temperaments 
in  which  these  systems  respectively  predomi- 
nate. 

Mill,  in  his  '^  Logic,"  outlines  a  theory  of 
ethology  or  science  of  character,  dividing  the 
subject  into  two  parts:  (1)  Dynamic  ethology, 
or  the  science  of  character  forming;  (2)  static 
ethology,  or  the  science  of  individual  differ- 
ences. Galton  has  followed  out  both  these  lines 
of  research  and  has  contributed  to  the  subject 
brilliant  investigations  of  differences,  their 
causes,  and  mathematical  methods  of  treating 
data. 

The  American  studies  in  this  field  center 
about  the  problem  of  mental  tests.  Although 
considerable  work  has  been  done  on  this  subject, 
the  investigations  have  lacked  coordination,  and 
at  present  there  are  rather  conflicting  results. 
Nearly  all  the  numerical  results,  both  of  Amer- 
ican and  foreign  investigators,  are  just  now 
under  the  ban  of  higher  mathematical  criticism, 
for  reasons  soon  to  be  mentioned.  The  Amer- 
ican studies  include  investigations  like  those  of 
Gilbert,  Cattell,  Seashore,  Thompson,  Sharp, 
Miles,  Thorndike,  the  World's  Fair  tests, 
Muensterberg's  tests  —  all  dominated  by  the 
desire  to  obtain  practical  measurements  of  in- 


\ 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ASPECTS  33 

dividuals.     The   difficulty   that   confronts    this 
method  is  now  well  understood;  the  "  simple  " 
processes   that   are   examined   are   themselves 
complex,  and  numerical  results,  when  obtained, 
do  not  sufficiently  represent  psychological  states 
or  functions.    When,  therefore,  attempts  are 
made  to  study  correlation  among  mental  func- 
tions, the  full  difficulty  comes  to  view.    Kesults 
are  conflicting,  but  nearly  all  investigators  have 
failed  to  find  much  correlation  among  the  func- 
tions that  they  have  tested.     Smith,  for  exam- 
ple, reporting  in  Thorndike's  '*  Heredity,  Cor- 
relation, and  Sex  Differences  in  School  Abili- 
ties,"  studied  the  relations   between  abilities 
involved  in  grammar  schoo'i  subjects  and  found 
no  great  degree  of  correlation   among  them, 
or  among  the  various   abilities   demanded  in 
the  same  subject.     Other  studies  by  Thorndike 
and  his  pupils  tend  to  show  that  the  abilities 
used  in  school  subjects  are  decidedly  unrelated, 
independent  and  specialized.     Seashore  found 
but  little  correlation  among  traits;  Bagley  de- 
nies   all    correspondence    between    motor    and 
mental   abilities,  except  antagonistic  relation- 
ships;   the   studies    of    Cattell,    Farrand,    and 
Wissler   are   negative,   and   Sharp   found   but 
little  correlation  in  a  long  series  of  tests  of 
various  functions. 

Into  the  midst  of  this  discussion  now  comes 
Spearman,  with  a  remarkable  investigation 
based  upon  mathematical  methods  of  studying 


34  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

correlation,  which  tends  to  show  that  the  failure 
to  discover  correlation  among  mental  traits  is 
due  to  lack  of  understanding  of  mathematical 
methods  of  handling  data.  His  problem  is  the 
investigation  of  correlation  between  various 
kinds  of  sense  discrimination,  and  general  intel- 
ligence as  represented  by  school  work.  He  ex- 
amined small  groups  of  school  children,  testing 
discrimination  for  sound,  light,  and  weight. 
In  estimating  intelligence  he  used  the  ordinary 
school  grades  based  upon  examinations,  the 
difference  between  each  boy's  rank  in  school 
and  his  rank  in  age,  the  common  sense  marked 
by  the  oldest  pupil,  the  next  oldest,  and  an 
adult.  He  then  proceeded  to  estimate  the  cor- 
relations among  these  two  series  of  gradings; 
that  is,  to  measure  the  common  element  or  fac- 
tor that  enters  into  the  ability  to  make  sense 
discriminations,  and  the  general  intelligence. 
He  proves  that  there  is  a  factor  common  to 
all  of  the  discrimination  functions  that  were 
tested,  and  also  a  factor  common  to  all  the 
intelligences  represented  in  the  various  methods 
of  grading.  Moreover,  this  common  factor  in 
all  the  discriminations  coincides  exactly  with 
the  common  factor  in  all  the  intelligences. 
What  this  factor  is,  psychologically,  he  does 
not  attempt  to  decide;  it  may  be  simple  or  it 
may  be  complex. 

If  now  Spearman's  method  is  valid,  there  is 
decided  correlation  among  mental  abilities,  and 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ASPECTS  35 

the  conclusions  of  many,  especially  among 
American  investigators,  are  wrong.  The  chief 
contribution  of  the  American  differential  psy- 
chology, and  it  is  a  considerable  one,  seems  to 
be  the  experimental  methods  that  have  been  de- 
vised or  applied  to  the  study  of  differences; 
some  of  them  no  doubt  crude,  but  serviceable  in 
the  long  course  of  preliminary  work  that  is  yet 
to  be  done  in  the  psychological  investigation  of 
individuality. 

The  differences  in  standpoint  that  are  found 
in  the  psychological  studies  of  individuality, 
though  somewhat  perplexing,  do  not  indicate 
lack  of  progress  in  the  subject,  nor  a  permanent 
state  of  contradiction.  They  seem  for  the  most 
part  due,  not  to  mistakes  and  wrong  concep- 
tions of  the  problem,  but  to  the  complexity  of 
the  subject.  This  is  a  condition  that  almost 
invariably  arises  at  the  beginning  of  a  new  de- 
velopment of  science.  The  new  problem  proves 
to  be  larger  than  those  who  make  the  begin- 
nings perceive,  and  the  narrow  schematization 
that  seems  necessary  at  the  outset  soon  gives 
way  to  a  broader  conception  of  the  problem. 
Unexpected  complications  arise,  and  it  is  soon 
seen  that  many  methods  must  be  tried,  and 
many  preliminary  investigations  made,  before 
exact  work  can  be  done,  or  a  clear  view  ahead 
be  seen.  The  study  of  individuality  is  in  the 
stage  of  preliminary  investigations,  when  we 
are  just  beginning  to  see  that  it  is  no  mere 


36  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

problem,  or  branch,  or  method  of  psychology, 
but  a  broad  field  for  scientific  research  that 
lies  before  us ;  a  field  in  which  all  methods  must 
be  made  ^Yelcome,  for  the  study  of  individuality 
is  a  meeting  place  of  many  sciences,  and  its 
attitude  must  therefore  be  cosmopolitan. 

REFERENCES 

There  is  as  yet  no  complete  summary  of  the  history 
of  individual  psychology,  but  it  must  be  studied  in 
scattered  articles  in  the  psychological  journals.  Par- 
tial summaries  of  methods  and  pre-suppositions  are 
contained  in  articles  by  Sharp,  Huey,  and  more  re- 
cently Spearman  in  the  American  Journal  of  Psychol- 
ogy, Ribot,  Psychology  of  the  Emotions  can  be 
consulted  for  some  reference  to  French  studies  of  char- 
acter and  temperament.  Spearman's  Article  on  Gen- 
eral Intelligence  (American  Journal  of  Psychology, 
April,  1904 J,  should  be  read. 


INDrriDUAL-STTJDT  FROM  THE  BIOLOGICAL  POINT  OF 
VIEW 

The  review  of  the  present  conceptions  of  in- 
dividual-study and  its  history  demonstrates  at 
least  two  facts:  (1)  that  the  study  of  individ- 
uality reaches  beyond  the  limits  of  any  one 
science;  (2)  that  there  is  at  present  no  concep- 
tion of  the  problem  of  individuality  that  is 


^umBsmmmism^ 


37 


capable  of  bringing  order  among  conflicting 
views,  or  of  serving  as  a  working  hypothesis  to 
unify  the  subject.  Yet  this  seems  to  be  neces- 
sary, if  progress  is  to  be  made. 

It  has  been  seen  that  most  of  the  suggestions 
for  a  science  of  individuality  have  been  derived 
from  psychology ;  and  rightly,  for  it  seems  true 
that  the  mind  of  a  man  is  the  most  essential 
part  of  his  personality,  and  psychology  has  suc- 
ceeded in  making  at  least  a  partial  analysis 
of  mind  into  its  elementary  processes.  Some 
think,  in  fact,  that  the  study  of  individuality 
is  a  branch  or  method  of  psychology.  But  this 
seems  to  be  too  narrow  a  view;  for  physical 
differences  must  be  taken  into  account  as  well 
as  mental  differences.  And  besides,  the  study 
of  mental  traits  does  not  belong  entirely  to  psy- 
chology, for  the  individual  is  more  than  a  com- 
plex of  mental  states  and  processes ;  he  is  a  self- 
conscious  person,  a  social  unit,  a  body-mind 
mechanism  related  to  the  whole  history  of  the 
race. 

The  question  arises  whether  some  point  of 
view  more  fundamental  may  not  be  taken  from 
which  the  subject  of  individual  differences  can 
be  approached  more  broadly  than  by  conceiving 
it  as  a  psychological  problem,  yet  in  which  psy- 
chology shall  be  the  central  viewpoint.  If  psy- 
chology is  still  to  be  retained  as  a  basis  for  the 
study  of  the  individual,  is  there  any  way  of 
looking  at  psychological  problems  which  will 


38  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

at  the  same  time  take  into  account  the  variation 
of  physical  traits  and  the  relations  of  the  indi- 
vidual to  the  history  of  the  race  and  to  the  so- 
ciety to  which  he  belongs;  in  other  words  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  conception  of  progress  by 
variation? 

In  accordance  with  this  broader  conception  of 
individual-study,  if  it  is  possible  to  take  it,  the 
first  principle  that  must  be  laid  down  is  that 
body  and  mind  have  evolved  together  in  the 
race  and  have  developed  together  in  the  indi- 
vidual; that,  therefore,  both  objective  and 
subjective  methods  must  be  employed;  that 
physical  and  mental  facts  are  to  be  placed  theo- 
retically upon  equal  terms.  If  such  a  psycho- 
physical standpoint  is  accepted  as  a  working  hy- 
pothesis, other  principles  follow.  It  will  be 
necessary  to  consider  first  the  simple  functions, 
both  mental  and  physical,  among  the  lowest 
forms  of  life,  and  to  see  how  these  elementary 
traits  can  vary.  Even  the  single-celled  animal 
carries  on  a  life  process  in  which  all  the  higher 
processes  are  already  represented.  The  single 
cell  can  vary  in  movement,  form,  gi'owth,  and 
reproductive  processes.  Processes  of  assimila- 
tion, respiration,  circulation,  elimination,  and 
irritability  appear  at  the  outset.  Naturally 
then  one  would  look  for  fundamental  variables 
among  these  simple  functions.  Here  one  would 
search  for  light  upon  the  physiological  basis 
of  temperament,   and  other  characteristics  of 


BIOLOGICAL  HYPOTHESIS  39 

the  individual  that  are  most  obviously  connected 
with  physical  traits. 

In  the  evolution  of  the  race,  the  characteristic 
known  as  irritability  soon  emerges  as  a  sig- 
nificant trait  of  the  animal  cell.  It  becomes 
pushed  ahead  by  selection,  becomes  highly  vari- 
able, and  the  seat  of  those  distinctions  and  se- 
lections that  are  called  psychical.  When  there- 
fore the  higher  traits  of  the  nervous  system 
and  the  mind  are  studied,  we  must  try  as  far  as 
possible  to  connect  them  with  variations  in 
fundamental  processes,  such  as  irritabilityj 
which  can  reasonably  be  supposed  to  underlie 
them.  In  this  way  must  be  considered  fatigue, 
recovery,  reflex  activity,  and  many  qualities  of 
the  mental  life,  especially  the  more  general 
characteristics  of  emotion,  mental  tonus,  and 
mental  tempo.  Consciousness  so  considered  is 
the  reverse  side  of  a  complex  of  physiological 
traits ;  now  we  have  a  glimpse  of  the  physical, 
now  of  the  mental,  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  two  series  of  facts  belong  together. 

The  nervous  system  is  essentially  a  mechan- 
ism by  which  impressions  are  coordinated  for 
the  purpose  of  producing  movements.  In  its 
primitive  form  it  is  a  sensori-motor  cell  in 
which  the  functions  of  sensation,  or  its  phys- 
iological equivalent,  and  motion  are  carried  on 
together.  The  two  functions  become  separated 
and  gradually  increased  in  complexity  by  the 
interposition  of  connecting  elements.     But  the 


40  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

type  of  action  is  not  changed.  However  com- 
plex may  be  the  functions  of  the  human  brain 
they  are  but  the  result  of  summation  of  the 
simplest  reactions,  and  the  highest  conscious 
processes  are  not  different  in  kind  from  the 
lowest.  Complex  differences  in  the  psychic 
field  must  be  interpreted  as  correlates  of  varia- 
tions in  afferent-motor  processes. 

The  nervous  system,  then,  is  a  mechanism 
for  securing  coordination  in  such  a  way  that  one 
element  may  act  with  another  to  cause  a  unit  in 
function  where  morphologically  there  are  sepa- 
rate structures.  This  is  the  type  of  all  psycho- 
physical reactions,  and  it  is  secured  in  two  ways 
in  the  individual;  (1)  by  the  development  of  in- 
nate coordinations;  (2)  by  associations  due  to 
experience.  Variable  factors  in  these  two  fun- 
damental forms  of  coordination  must  be  investi- 
gated therefore  as  a  preparation  for  the  classi- 
fication of  differences  in  the  higher  processes  of 
the  mental  life,  and  the  higher  processes  must 
so  far  as  possible  be  interpreted  in  terms  of 
these  fundamental  variables.  So  understand- 
ing the  mechanism  of  the  nervous  system  in- 
dividuals can  be  studied  with  reference  to  the 
two  types  of  coordination  that  have  been  de- 
scribed. 

In  considering  differences  among  individuals 
the  native  coordinations  would  be  considered 
first,  regarding  the  acts  that  result  from  them 
as  primarily  body-mind  adjustments  in  situa- 


BIOLOGICAL  HYPOTHESIS  41 

tions  that  are  or  have  been  practical  in  the 
development  of  the  race.  Here  indeed  is  the 
central  point  of  the  theory  of  individual-study. 
The  most  practical  point  to  observe  is  that  on 
this  consideration  the  most  determining  traits 
of  individuality  are  to  be  sought,  not  in  the 
higher  sentiments  and  their  manifestations  in 
conduct,  but  in  the  simple  reactions,  the  primary 
instinct-feelings;  variations  in  which,  if  the 
biological  hypothesis  is  correct,  determine 
largely  differences  in  the  higher  or  more  com- 
plex traits  of  the  moral,  religious,  social,  aes- 
thetic, and  practical  life.  Many  other  traits 
of  the  individual  such  as  characteristics  of  in- 
terest, attention,  and  habit  must  be  examined 
also  with  reference  to  variability  of  the  primary 
instincts,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that 
when  a  few  basic  traits  are  thoroughly  under- 
stood, many  differences  in  human  nature  other- 
wise inexplicable  will  be  explained.  To  what 
extent  these  differences  will  be  referred  to  their 
physical  correlates  it  is  impossible  to  know ;  but 
it  is  to  be  expected  that  many  relationships  be- 
tween these  mental  differences  and  underlying 
physical  conditions  will  eventually  be  made  out ; 
that  differences  in  excitability  of  nerve  tissue, 
in  supply  of  blood  to  tissues,  traits  of  metabo- 
lism and  the  like  will  be  found  correlated  with 
differences  that  are  discovered  by  subjective 
methods  and  by  observation  of  activity. 
Coming  now  to  the  phase  of  consciousness 


42  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

that  is  represented  by  the  acquired  brain  con- 
nection, we  must  begin  again,  if  possible,  with 
a  central  characteristic  or  elementary  process, 
which  seems  to  be  associative  connection. 
Again,  it  is  the  general  characteristic  of  men- 
tal habit,  rather  than  content  of  consciousness 
which  must  be  examined  for  clues  to  the  most 
determining  mental  differences.  The  simple 
reaction  arc,  that  is  made  up  of  impression, 
movement,  and  return  of  the  impression  must 
be  examined  to  detect  its  essential  variables, 
regarding  it  as  a  practical  function,  and  the 
type  of  all  mental  activity.  We  need  not  follow 
out  the  details  of  this  process  of  associative 
connection,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  se- 
lective process  that  is  inherent  in  it  gradually 
produces  a  connected  stream  of  consciousness 
in  the  individual,  and  directs  it  to  practical 
ends,  but  it  is  sufficient  to  point  out  that  the 
central  problem  of  intellectual  differences  is 
the  analysis  of  this  process  of  associative  con- 
nection into  its  variable  elements,  and  to  trace 
the  connection  between  the  more  complex  dif- 
ference in  mental  activity  and  these.  Only 
when,  on  this  hypothesis,  the  explanatory 
powers  of  the  simple  principles  fail  need  others 
be  resorted  to. 

This  statement  of  the  theory  of  mental  dif- 
ferences is  of  course  but  the  barest  suggestion 
of  an  outline  but  it  will  serve  the  purpose  of 
showing  how  an  hypothesis  can  be  constructed 


BIOLOGICAL  HYPOTHESIS  43 

that  shall  take  into  account  both  the  physical 
and  mental  aspects  of  individuality  in  the  same 
conceptions.  The  proof  of  the  value  of  such  a 
working  hypothesis  would  be  found  in  the  ac- 
tual use  of  it.  That  such  a  method  is  more 
comprehensive  and  better  suited  to  the  purpose 
of  individual- study  than  that  which  is  based 
upon  analytic  psychology  there  are  many  indi- 
cations. For  this  psycho-physical  view  exam- 
ines the  individual  as  a  whole,  as  a  member  of 
a  biological  series  and  in  relation  to  the  de- 
velopment of  individuality  in  the  race.  It 
brings  to  the  foreground  and  puts  into  their 
proper  place  the  instincts  and  emotions,  and 
makes  the  differences  among  their  most  gen- 
eral characteristics  the  foundation  of  person- 
ality; and  it  emphasizes  the  social  and  ethical 
aspects  of  individuality  which  are  closely  con- 
nected with  the  primary  instinctive  reactions. 
It  connects  also  with  those  biographical  methods 
which  must  be  used  for  the  description  of  the 
individual  with  reference  to  the  most  important 
events  of  his  life ;  for  the  events  that  are  most 
determining  in  the  life  of  an  individual  are 
those  usually  that  profoundly  affect  some  funda- 
mental emotion  and  its  expression  in  conduct 
or  interest. 

However  one  may  approach  the  study  of  indi- 
viduality, whether  for  the  purposes  of  scien- 
tific research  or  for  practical  ends,  some  means 
must  be  adopted  for  bringing  the  subject  into 


44  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

order.  This  can  be  done  only  by  considering 
the  relations  of  the  subject  to  the  sciences  on 
which  it  is  based.  It  has  been  the  aim  of  the 
preceding  chapters  merely  to  suggest  these  re- 
lations, and  the  attitude  of  mind  one  must  take 
in  considering  how  and  why  people  differ 
from  each  other.  Attention  can  now  be  turned 
to  the  actual  methods  that  are  to  be  used  in 
studying  these  differences. 

REFERENCES 

References  for  reading  in  connection  with  this  chap- 
ter would  necessarily  send  one  rather  far  afield  in 
psychological  literature.     To  understand  the  position 
of  the  naturalistic  psychology  upon  which  this  view  is 
based,  one  should  read  the  articles  on  anger,  fear,  and 
other  emotions  by  G.  S.  Hall,  that  have  appeared  from  / 
time  to  time  in  the  American  .Journal  of  Psychology. ' 
The  most  systematic  presentation  of  the  subject  is  to 
be  found  in  the  works  of  J.  Mark  Baldwin;  especially j 
Mental  Development  in  the  Child  and  the  Race  can  be^ 
read.     Chamberlain's  The  Child  contains  most  of  the^ 
facts.     Royce's    Outlines    of    Psychology    is    written 
from  somewhat  similar  points  of  departure.     An  ar- 
ticle by  Dewey,  The  Reflex  Arc  Concept  in  Psychol- 
ogy (Psychological  Review  Vol.  Ill,  1896),  contains 
the  kernel  of  the  psychological  theory  that  has  been 
worked  out  by  Baldwin.     James,  Talks  to  Teachers  is 
a  more  elementary  treatment  at  least  in  part  along 
the  same  lines.     Kirkpatrick's  Genetic  Psychology  is 
a  recent  exposition  of  these  topics. 


PRACTICAL  STUDY  OF  INDIVIDUALS 


9b. 


METHODS   AND   DIRECTIONS 

In  the  preceding  sections  an  outline  has  been 
given  of  a  science  of  individuality  and  its 
relations  to  other  branches  of  knowledge.  It 
can  readily  be  seen  that  the  way  to  a  deep  un- 
derstanding of  the  problems  of  individual  dif- 
ferences is  a  long  one,  but  without  some  such 
preliminary  study  a  proper  perspective  for  the 
observation  of  individuals  cannot  be  obtained. 
Yet  individual  pedagogy,  like  general  pedagogy, 
considered  as  a  practical  art,  stands  in  a  pecul- 
iar relation  to  the  scientific  principles  which 
underlie  it.  These  practical  arts  cannot  wait 
for  sciences  to  be  worked  out:  meantime  indi- 
viduals must  be  dealt  with  in  some  way,  just 
as  it  is  necessary  to  act  upon  some  educational 
philosophy,  in  the  absence  of  one  that  is  thor- 
oughly grounded  in  well-established  principles. 
We  do  actually  in  our  daily  life  study  individ- 
uals, and  we  act  upon  the  result  of  our  observa- 
tions, with  something  like  conviction  of  the 
reasonableness  of  our  actions.  If  it  is  toler- 
able, fb  act  upon  our  superficial  or  natural 
judgments,  we  seem  to  be  justified  in  taking  also 
whatever  partially  worked  out  principles  science 

47 


48  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

already  offers,  and  the  methods  that  are  readi- 
est to  hand,  and  may  eke  out  our  knowledge  of 
individuals  as  best  we  can,  make  what  hypoth- 
eses we  are  able  about  the  causes  of  their  dif- 
ferences, their  significance  and  value,  and  the 
methods  of  dealing  with  them  to  the  best  in- 
terests of  society  and  the  individuals  in  it. 
Keeping  the  scientific  ideals  well  fixed  in  mind, 
we  can  proceed  to  make  as  comprehensive  a 
study  of  individuality  as  we  can,  and  we  have 
a  right  to  call  such  study  practical  if  by  it 
power  to  understand  individuals  is  increased, 
or  if  some  reasonably  safe  conclusions  are 
reached  that  can  be  applied  to  practical  af- 
fairs. This  is  exactly  the  position  the  prac- 
ticing physician  finds  himself  in ;  in  want  of  a 
complete  and  accurate  method  of  making  diag- 
nosis, he  must  do  the  best  he  can,  and  proceed 
to  act  upon  his  conclusions.  The  clearer  his 
conception  of  the  ideals  of  his  science,  and  the 
greater  his  experience  with  human  nature,  the 
greater  his  skill  in  diagnosis  and  treatment  will 
be  likely  to  be. 

The  methods  of  study  and  observation  that 
are  to  be  described  apply  especially  to  children 
of  school  age,  and  the  point  of  view  taken  is 
for  the  most  part  the  practical  or  pedagogical. 
The  aim  is  to  obtain  as  wide  a  knowledge  of 
children  as  possible,  including  both  physical  and 
mental  traits,  using  methods  that  require  no 


PRACTICAL  METHODS  49 

apparatus,  or  but  the  simplest,  and  whenever 
possible  to  suggest  application  of  the  knowl- 
edge that  is  gained  to  the  problems  of  school 
and  home. 

For  several  reasons  children  from  about  eight 
or  nine  to  eleven  or  twelve  years  of  age  are 
best  for  practice  study  of  differences  and  types. 
Younger  children  are  difficult  to  manage  in  ex- 
periments; they  cannot  introspect  well,  and 
they  cannot  write  fluently.  Older  children  are 
likely  to  have  entered  the  adolescent  period 
and  to  have  undergone  changes  that  tend  to 
obscure  for  a  time  their  permanent  traits ;  and 
they  have  been  modified  by  environment  in  a 
way  still  further  to  complicate  the  problem. 
A  group  of  children  of  about  fifty  in  number, 
having  somewhat  similar  work  in  school,  makes 
a  suitable  group  from  which  to  collect  material 
for  study  and  comparison  of  individuals. 

It  is  not  likely  that  anyone  will  have  oppor- 
tunity or  desire  to  apply  in  detail  all  the  meth- 
ods of  study  that  are  suggested,  or  to  observe 
a  large  group  of  children  for  a  long  time,  as 
would  be  necessary  to  obtain  materials  of  suf- 
ficient exactness  for  certain  application.  But 
one  can  easily  make  selections  from  the  tests 
suited  to  whatever  time  and  opportunity  can 
be  found,  and  perhaps  make  a  fairly  compre- 
hensive study  of  a  considerable  number  of  chil- 
dren, that  will  have  very  practical  results,  and 


50  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

perhaps  in  exceptional  cases  be  of  the  greatest 
service  to  those  who  are  studied.  Much  of  the 
experimental  work  is  planned  to  be  educational 
to  the  child  as  well  as  to  the  observer.  It  puts 
the  mind  to  test  in  ways  that  seem  new  to  the 
child,  makes  use  of  normal  competition,  and 
appeals  to  a  natural  desire  on  the  part  of  the 
child  to  know  more  about  his  own  standing  and 
ability.  Children  can  readily  be  made  inter- 
ested in  such  tests,  especially  if  apparatus  is 
used,  however  simple  it  may  be. 

If  study  of  a  group  of  children  is  to  be  carried 
on  for  a  considerable  time,  it  is  well  to  provide 
for  each  child  an  envelope  or  other  form  of 
file  large  enough  to  contain  many  samples  of 
his  school  work,  and  the  records  of  experiments 
and  observations  that  are  made  upon  him.  It 
is  better  to  save  too  much  than  too  little,  and 
anything  that  is  wiitten  or  drawn  by  the  child 
expresses  his  individuality  in  some  way. 

In  using  these  methods  of  observation  and 
experiment  in  the  training  of  teachers,  it  is 
probably  best  that  the  student  should  make  as 
comprehensive  a  study  as  possilile  of  one  or  per- 
haps two  children;  if  two,  children  somewhat 
different  in  type  should  be  chosen.  These  chil- 
dren must  constantly  be  studied  in  comparison 
with  the  whole  group,  for  it  is  for  the  most 
l>art  by  building  up  standards  by  observing  the 
many  that  the  one  can  be  understood.  All  the 
facts  that  can  be  obtained  about  a  child  must 


PRACTICAL  METHODS  51 

be  studied  together,  in  order  to  understand  him 
as  a  whole  or  individual.  For  such  study  no 
exact  methods  can  be  given  but  much  depends 
upon  the  student 's  power  to  see  facts  in  relation 
to  each  other. 

If  considerable  attention  is  to  be  paid  to  nu- 
merical results,  records  of  the  whole  group  that 
can  so  be  arranged  should  be  spread  upon  a 
chart,  in  which  the  data  relating  to  one  child 
will  appear  in  a  line  horizontally  and  the 
records  for  all  the  class  in  any  one  experiment 
will  appear  vertically  in  a  column.  By  this 
means  facts  become  readily  accessible  for  com- 
parison, and  for  application  of  methods  of  cal- 
culation, if  they  are  required. 

It  is  not  supposed  that  data  gathered  under 
the  practical  limitations  of  the  school  will  be 
exact  enough  so  that  standards  can  be  com- 
puted that  will  be  of  service  to  other  experi- 
menters, or  that  methods  of  studying  correlation 
will  usually  be  applied.  There  are  however 
simple  mathematical  methods  that  can  be 
applied  to  the  study  of  correlation  among  the 
functions  such  as  will  be  tested.  Whenever  in 
fact  two  traits  or  functions  have  been  measured 
in  such  a  way  that  the  members  of  a  group  pos- 
sessing them  can  be  graded  in  a  series  with 
regard  to  excellence  or  quantity  of  the  quality 
tested,  simple  methods  of  calculation  can  be 
applied  to  express  the  degree  of  correlation 
between    those    traits.     To    understand    these 


62  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

methods  the  work  of  Boas,  Pearson,  Wissler, 
and  Spearman  should  be  read.  Although  nmch 
of  this  literature  is  difficult  and  demands  pa- 
tient study,  for  the  most  part  it  requires  no 
knowledge  of  mathematics  beyond  that  usually 
acquired  in  a  secondary  school. 


II 

EXAMINATION   OF   THE   HEALTH 

Although  the  subject  of  diseases  of  children 
is  a  special  science  good  health  and  poor 
health  are  such  relative  conditions,  and  bodily 
conditions  and  mental  function  are  so  closely 
dependent  upon  one  another,  that  some  knowl- 
edge of  the  most  common  affections  of  health 
is  necessary  for  anyone  that  wishes  to  investi- 
gate individuality.  Chronic  conditions  of  ill- 
health  and  tendency  to  disease  are  so  common 
in  childhood  that  for  practical  reasons  every 
child  of  school  age  should  at  least  once  each 
year  be  examined  thoroughly  by  a  competent 
physician.  During  the  last  few  years  there  has 
been  a  growing  conviction  that  the  body  of  the 
child  has  been  neglected  in  the  school,  and 
progress  is  now  being  made  rapidly  toward  a 
school  practice  in  which  attention  to  the  health 
will  take  a  larger  part.  Thus  far  the  best  work 
has  been  done  in  testing  sight  and  hearing,  and 
in  examining  for  some  of  the  most  prevalent 


EXAMINATION  OF  HEALTH  53 

diseases  that  directly  affect  the  intelligence  of 
the  child,  such  as  adenoids.  The  mentally  de- 
fective and  the  morally  delinquent  children  have 
lately  received  much  attention  and  are  in  a  fair 
way  to  be  more  skillfully  treated  than  in  the 
past.  In  many  cities  tests  of  the  vision  and 
hearing  of  all  school  children  are  made  once 
or  twice  each  year,  and  in  some  cases  physical 
examinations  are  carried  out.  Some  practical 
method  is  now  needed  of  obtaining  a  reliable 
examination  of  the  health  of  every  child,  and 
of  so  recording  his  physical  standing  that  the 
information  can  be  used  as  effectively  in  the 
school  as  the  report  of  conduct  and  class  stand- 
ing now  is.  Departments  of  hygiene  and  med- 
ical supervision,  and  departments  of  physical 
training  are  being  introduced  into  school  sys- 
tems here  and  there,  and  it  is  likely  that  soon 
more  complete  information  about  the  health  of 
children  will  be  in  the  hands  of  teachers,  and  a 
better  provision  made  for  the  care  of  the  health. 
Parents  will  usually  cooperate  willingly  in  any 
plan  that  can  be  shown  to  them  to  be  in  the  in- 
terest of  their  children's  welfare  and  the  ex- 
amination of  health  by  school  officials  for  the 
special  purposes  of  the  school  could  readily  be 
made  a  part  of  the  routine  of  education.  In 
one  city  in  which  the  experiment  was  tried  a 
note  was  sent  to  parents  requesting  that  per- 
mission be  granted  to  examine  their  children. 
More  than  sixty  per  cent  responded  at  once 


54  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

granting  the  request,  and  many  showed  much 
interest  in  the  work.  Many  cases  of  defective 
health  were  discovered  that  were  before  un- 
known cither  to  parent  or  teacher.  In  about 
one  case  in  five  of  all  the  children  that  were  ex- 
amined the  health  was  found  to  be  unsatisfac- 
tory. In  many  instances  the  causes  of  the 
physical  inadequacy  seemed  to  be  obscure,  and 
the  need  was  constantly  felt  for  opportunity  to 
investigate  more  thoroughly  and  with  the  ad- 
vantage of  exact  methods  and  laboratory  facil- 
ities. This  was  true  especially  of  cases  of 
nervous  defect  in  which  a  single  examination 
could  give  but  a  superficial  knowledge. 

If  the  health  of  the  child  is  to  be  examined 
some  information  must  be  obtained  from  the 
home  pertaining  to  the  history  of  the  child  and 
his  heredity.  Information  about  such  topics  as 
the  following  should  be  obtained  and  records 
made :  — 

Are  the  near  relatives  of  the  child  —  grand- 
parents, parents,  aunts  and  uncles,  brothers  and 
sisters  —  in  good  health?  If  not  what  is  the 
nature  of  the  deficiency  in  each  case?  If  any 
have  died  what  was  the  cause  of  death,  and  the 
age?  Is  there  a  marked  tendency  in  the  family 
to  any  disease,  such  as  tuberculosis,  nervous 
disease  of  any  kind,  rheumatism?  Age  of  par- 
ents, number  of  children  in  the  family  and  the 
age  of  each  should  also  be  known. 

In  general  has  the  health  of  the  child  been 


EXAMINATION  OF  HEALTH  55 

good?  Has  he  ever  been  acutely  ill,  and  if  so 
with  what  disease?  Does  he  frequently  suffer 
from  extreme  fatigue  or  exhaustion,  or  show 
sign  of  nervousness!  Are  appetite,  sleep,  ex- 
cretory functions  normal? 

If  such  information  about  the  health  of  chil- 
dren is  to  be  supplemented  by  examination  by 
a  physician  some  provision  must  be  made  for 
permanent  records,  and  there  should  be  printed 
blanks  provided,  to  serve  as  a  guide  for  the 
examiner,  and  to  make  the  information  uniform 
and  readily  accessible. 

The  medical  examination  would  include  ob- 
servation about  the  general  condition  of  the 
child,  tests  of  respiration  and  circulation,  ex- 
amination of  the  abdominal  organs,  of  the  nerv- 
ous system,  observations  for  physical  defects, 
tests  of  vision  and  hearing,  examination  of  nose 
and  throat. 

Some  of  the  conditions  that  the  physician  will 
frequently  find  are:  General  delicacy  without 
definite  disease,  tendency  to  tuberculosis  (as 
shown  by  enlarged  glands,  eye  troubles,  dis- 
charging ears),  muscular  weakness  usually  ac- 
companied by  round  shoulders  and  protruding 
abdomen,  various  forms  of  nervous  weakness 
and  disorder,  chorea,  adenoid  growths,  enlarged 
tonsils,  chronic  inflammation  of  nose  and  throat, 
weakness  of  the  lungs,  irregular  or  overacting 
heart,  heart  disease,  rheumatism,  chronic  skin 
disease,  chronic  indigestion,  defective  nutrition, 


66  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

curvature  of  the  spine  and  other  physical  ab- 
normalities, defects  of  vision  and  hearing.  On 
the  whole,  school  life  is  a  time  of  tendencies 
and  constitutional  weaknesses  rather  than  of 
actual  disease  and  the  problems  of  diagnosis 
are  therefore  delicate  and  difficult.  The  ideal 
school  physician  is  a  man  of  broad  experience  in 
diagnostic  work,  and  in  the  diseases  of  child- 
hood. If  the  work  is  to  be  exact  and  thorough, 
laboratory  facilities  must  be  had  for  such  work 
as  the  examination  of  secretions  and  excretions, 
blood  analysis,  and  for  exact  methods  for  the 
study  of  the  nervous  system.  The  school  in 
fact  presents  its  own  peculiar  problems  of  diag- 
nosis different  from  those  of  the  clinic  and 
general  practice,  and  the  work  of  the  school 
physician  needs  special  preparation,  and  special 
laboratory  equipment  such  as  is  not  yet  gener- 
ally available. 

The  most  important  part  of  the  medical  ex- 
amination from  the  standpoint  of  the  school, 
and  the  part  that  is  most  likely  to  be  as  yet 
puzzling  to  the  general  practitioner  is  the  ex- 
amination of  the  nervous  and  mental  condition 
of  the  child.  The  school  physician  would  be 
expected  to  give  special  attention  to  this  sub- 
ject, lie  would  examine  not  only  for  the  more 
common  organic  diseases  that  are  seen  in  hos- 
pital and  clinical  work,  but  he  would  especially 
be  on  the  lookout  for  neurotic  conditions  of  all 
kinds,  tendencies  toward  abnormal  mental  and 


EXAMINATION  OF  HEALTH  57 

moral  life,  fatigue,  eccentricity,  and  the  like. 
He  would  aim  to  estimate  the  capacity  and 
resistance  of  the  child  with  reference  to  the 
work  of  the  school.  His  examination  would  in- 
clude enquiry  into  the  habits  and  interests  of 
the  child,  particularly  in  the  case  of  very  bright 
and  very  dull  children,  and  all  that  appear  in 
any  way  exceptional,  either  physically  or  men- 
tally. Such  work  at  the  present  time  does  not 
entirely  fall  within  the  interests  or  abilities  of 
the  ordinary  practicing  physician,  and  the  ex- 
act study  of  the  mental  life  of  the  child,  from 
the  standpoint  of  medicine,  is  the  special  work 
of  the  alienists,  and  even  with  them  it  is  in  its 
pioneer  stage. 

If  expert  assistance  can  be  had  in  testing 
vision  and  hearing  it  should  always  be  em- 
ployed. If  not,  the  ordinary  tests  that  can  be 
made  by  anyone  after  a  little  practice  are  de- 
cidedly better  than  nothing.  It  should  be  un- 
derstood, however,  that  such  tests  are  but  ap- 
proximately accurate,  and  that  they  are  never 
to  be  regarded  as  final.  These  tests  of  vision 
do  not  discover  all  the  defects  of  eyesight  and 
it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  a  child  should 
wear  glasses  if  the  vision  is  not  normal.  A 
record  of  defective  vision  however  does  call 
for  further  investigation  by  more  exact  meth- 
ods, and  such  examination  should  never  be  neg- 
lected. The  best  chance  of  a  correct  diagnosis 
of  the  cause  of  defective  vision  and  satisfactory 


58  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

correction  of  it  is  at  the  bands  of  a  medical 
specialist  in  eye  diseases,  an  oculist.  Some  op- 
ticians are  now  experienced  and  well  equipped 
with  accurate  appliances  for  measurement  of 
the  eye,  and  a  good  optician  is  better  than  a 
bad  oculist.  Tests  of  large  numbers  of  chil- 
dren in  several  cities  by  means  of  the  Snellen 
card  or  similar  device  shows  that  about  one 
school  child  in  five  has  subnormal  vision,  and 
needs  therefore  expert  diagnosis  by  someone 
competent  to  decide  about  treatment  of  the  dif- 
ficulty. 

In  order  that  records  may  have  value  there 
should  be  recorded  in  every  case;  name  of  the 
child,  age  in  years  and  months,  sex,  grade, 
school,  date  of  examination,  vision  of  right  eye, 
vision  of  left  eye.  Note  should  also  be  made  if 
the  child  wore  glasses  in  the  test  and  if  there 
have  been  frequent  headaches,  inflammation  of 
the  eyes,  pain,  or  strain,  in  looking  or  reading, 
these  facts  should  be  entered.  The  test  is  usu- 
ally made  ])y  the  Snellen  card,  which  can  be 
obtained  from  any  dealer  in  optical  goods.  It 
should  be  hung  in  good  light,  not  in  direct  sun- 
light, and  the  light  should  not  shine  into  the 
eyes  of  the  child  but  should  come  from  the  side 
or  back.  One  eye  of  the  child  should  be  covered 
but  not  closed  while  the  other  is  being  tested. 
In  testing  the  child  is  to  read  the  letters  on 
the  card  beginning  with  the  largest,  and  reading 
the  lines  one  after  another.     The  best  distance 


EXAMINATION  OF  HEALTH  59 

at  whicli  to  place  the  child  is  twenty  feet  from 
the  card.  The  last  Hue  that  can  be  read  easily 
should  be  recorded.  The  method  of  notation  is 
to  make  the  distance  at  which  the  child  stands 
the  numerator  of  a  fraction  and  the  distance 
at  which  the  last  line  that  is  read  should  be 
read  the  denominator.  Thus  if  the  child  stands 
at  twenty  feet  and  reads  the  line  that  should  be 
read  by  the  normal  eye  at  that  distance  the 
vision  will  be  recorded  as  ^^.  If  he  reads 
only  so  far  as  the  line  that  should  be  read  at 
30  feet  the  vision  will  be  recorded  as  f^. 
The  record  should  be  made  for  each  eye. 
Twenty-twentieths  is  normal  vision;  anything 
less  than  that  is  abnormal  vision. 

The  hearing  of  school  children  has  been  stud- 
ied by  experts,  and  although  the  methods  are 
not  quite  so  exact  nor  so  easily  practiced  as 
tests  of  vision  they  are  practicable  for  the 
teacher,  if  a  little  study  is  given  to  them. 
There  are  several  forms  of  audiometer  that 
can  be  purchased  from  the  instrument  maker 
but  fairly  accurate  tests  of  hearing  can  be  made 
with  a  watch,  preferably  a  stop  watch;  or  with 
a  little  more  practice,  with  the  voice. 

In  the  watch  test  the  child  stands  with  the 
side  turned  toward  the  experimenter.  An  as- 
sistant, or  failing  that  the  child  himself,  holds 
the  end  of  a  tape  line  close  to  the  face  below 
the  ear.  With  the  other  hand  he  presses  a 
handkerchief  to  the  ear  not  in  use.     The  watch 


60  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

is  held  close  enough  to  the  ear  to  be  distinctly 
heard  aud  is  then  slowly  withdrawn  until  a 
point  is  reached  at  which  it  is  no  longer  heard. 
It  can  then  be  held  at  a  distance  quite  out  of 
range  of  hearing  and  slowly  brought  nearer 
until  it  is  heard.  By  starting  and  stopping  the 
watch  several  times  while  it  is  held  at  this  po- 
sition the  correctness  of  the  result  can  be  con- 
firmed. In  making  the  record  the  standard  to 
be  used  is  the  record  of  some  one  known  by 
more  accurate  tests  or  otherwise  to  have  nor- 
mal hearing.  For  the  numerator  the  distance 
at  which  the  watch  is  heard  by  the  child  is  used ; 
for  the  denominator  the  distance  at  which  it 
can  be  heard  by  the  standard  or  normal  ear. 
Each  ear  should  be  tested  separately.  Note 
should  be  made  of  frequent  earache  or  dis- 
charge from  the  ear.  Deafness  is  often  inter- 
mittent or  variable  and  usually  a  single  test 
is  not  enough  to  establish  the  existence  of  good 
hearing. 

Better  than  the  watch  test  because  it  tests 
hearing  over  a  wider  range  of  tones  is  the  voice 
method.  The  examination  is  made  under  the 
same  conditions  as  in  the  watcli  experiment. 
If  the  whisper  is  used  the  experimenter  first 
takes  a  deep  breath  and  then  breathes  out  as 
much  as  possible,  holding  the  breath  thus  while 
whispering.  With  a  little  practice  the  test  can 
be  made  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy.  For 
the  ordinary  purposes  of  the  unpracticed  ob- 


EXAMINATION  OF  HEALTH  61 

server  it  is  likely  that  tests  with  low  spoken 
tones  are  capable  of  giving  quite  as  good  results. 
The  child  repeats  after  the  experimenter  each 
word  that  is  spoken  to  him  moving  away  until 
he  can  no  longer  repeat  accurately.  The  value 
of  the  records  depends  upon  the  uniformity 
of  the  tests,  and  the  conditions  under  which 
experimenting  is  done. 

Such  an  account  as  the  above  of  methods  of 
examining  the  health  of  a  child  can  of  course 
afford  but  a  glimpse  into  the  vast  subject  of 
medical  diagnosis;  a  subject  which  comprises 
several  well-defined  branches  of  science,  and 
which  is  now  pursued  by  the  refined  and  exact 
methods  of  the  laboratory  in  ways  that  can  be 
fully  understood  only  after  specialization  in 
these  sciences.  In  practical  work  the  greatest 
service  of  the  amateur  is  to  be  qualified  to 
detect  indications  of  disease,  and  to  direct  the 
child  to  the  proper  persons  for  expert  study 
and  if  necessary,  treatment.  Little  has  been 
said  about  mental  abnormalities  and  diseases 
of  childhood,  but  in  the  following  chapters  some 
of  their  signs  will  be  examined.  Below  is  given 
a  report-form  that  can  be  used  for  the  work  of 
preliminary  examinations  of  health:  and  also 
a  special  report-form  for  laboratory  examina- 
tions of  eye,  ear,  nose,  and  throat.  They  will 
show  the  ground  that  is  usually  covered  in  such 
examinations. 


62  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 


REPORT  OF  MEDICAL  EXAMINATION 

Name  Sex  Age  School  Grade 

Birthplace  Nationality  F     M        Age  of  parents  F     M 

Age  of  brothers  and  sisters  B  S 

Heredity  and  health  of  family 

Personal  history 

Height  Weight  State  of  nutrition 

Pulse,  Rate  Characteristics  Respiration  rate,  etc., 

Temperature 

Chest 

Lungs  Inspection 

Measurements  Inspiration  Expiration 

Auscultation 

Percussion 
Heart  Percussion 

Auscultation 
Abdominal  organs 

Nervous  system         Coordination         Reflexes         Movements 
Muscular  development 

Skin  Physical  conformation 

Direction  to  pathologist  and   special   examiner. 
Summary.     Is    health    excellent,   good,    fair,    poor,    seriously 
deficient?     Is  there  any  marked  disease  or  tendency  to  disease, 
and  if  so  what  are  the  present  indications  of  its  development? 
Does  the  child  need  medical  or  surgical  treatment? 

Directions  to  teacher  or  parent. 
Date  Examiner 


SPECIAL  EXAMINATION, 
Eyes  R 

Vision 
Myopia 
Hyperopia 
Astigmatism 
Ophthalmoscope  and  remarks       R 


EXAMINATION  OF  HEALTH  63 

Ears 

Watch 

Voice 

Tuning  fork 

Membrana  tymphana,  Eustachian  tube,  and  remarks 
R  L 

Nose 
Throat 

Does  the  child  need  medical  advice  or  treatment' 
Remarks  to  teacher  or  parent 
Date  Examiner 

EEFERENCES 

L.  E.  Holt:  Diseases  of  Infancy  and  Childhood. 
This  is  a  large  medical  work  written  especially  for 
medical  students  and  physicians,  but  the  general 
reader  will  find  it  a  valuable  source  book  in  the  sub- 
ject of  children's  diseases. 

B.  Sachs :  A  Treatise  on  The  Nervous  Diseases  of 
Children.  Also  a  technical  medical  work  but  valuable 
for  reference. 

W.  W.  Ireland :  Mental  Affections  of  Children.  A 
good  introduction  to  the  subject  of  mental  diseases. 

L.  G.  Guthrie :  Functional  Nervous  Disorders  in 
Childhood. 

W.  L.  McKenzie :  The  Health  of  the  School  Child. 

E.  S.  Talbot :  Degeneracy,  its  Causes,  Signs,  and 
Results.  A  detailed  study  of  degeneracy  in  the  hu- 
man mind  and  body. 

Francis  Warner:  The  Children;  How  to  Study 
Them — and  other  books  by  the  same  author. 

S.  H.  Rowe :  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child. 

Gulick  and  Ayres :  Medical  Inspection  of  Schools. 

E.  A.  Kirkpatrick:  Some  Simple  Methods  of  Rec- 


64  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

ognizing  Physical  Fitness  and  Unfitness  of  School 
Children.  Addresses  and  Proceedings  of  the  National 
Educational  Association,  1905,  pp.  760-766. 


Ill 

OBSERVATION    OF   BODY   CHARACTERISTICS 

A  chapter  in  the  study  of  individuality  that 
has  as  yet  hardly  been  entered  upon  in  a 
scientific  manner  is  the  analysis  and  descrip- 
tion of  physical  traits,  and  the  determination 
of  their  relation  to  mental  characteristics. 
This  is  in  part  the  problem  of  the  old  phrenol- 
ogy which  tried  to  read  character  from  the 
shape  of  the  head  alone,  and  of  other  pseudo- 
sciences  such  as  physiognomy  and  palmistry 
that  attempt  the  same  task  from  observation  of 
face  and  hand.  All  of  these  methods,  it  has 
already  been  seen,  have  failed  to  yield  results 
at  all  trustworthy.  But  that  there  is  a  relation 
between  physical  form  and  mental  trait  there 
is  no  doubt,  for  our  practical  estimations  of 
people  are  derived  in  part  at  least  from  judg- 
ments that  are  based  upon  the  recognition  of 
such  fixed  relationships.  Not  only  are  normal 
mental  and  johysical  traits  thus  related  but  al- 
ready there  is  promise  of  discovery  of  relations 
between  types  of  physical  conformation  and  dis- 
ease or  tendency  to  disease  and  to  criminality. 
This  whole  subject  of  relation  of  physical  con- 


BODY  CHARACTERISTICS  65 

formation  to  mental  trait  is  yet  to  be  put  onto 
a  scientific  basis,  and  we  have  among  the  recog- 
nized sciences  no  successor  to  the  old  phrenol- 
ogy, except  such  beginnings  as  are  being  made 
by  the  anthropometrists. 

The  best  attempt  thus  far  to  analyze  the 
human  face  and  figure  seems  to  be  that  of  Ber- 
tillon.  The  study  was  made  in  the  course  of  • 
devising  a  system  of  marking  for  the  identifica- 
tion of  criminals,  and  it  is  therefore  somewhat 
special;  but  it  furnishes  some  excellent  sug- 
gestions for  a  more  general  study  of  individ- 
uals. The  Bertillon  system  describes  minutely 
the  eye  and  the  ear,  and  somewhat  less  in  detail 
the  other  parts  of  the  face  and  figure.  Most 
of  the  suggestions  that  are  given  below  for  ob- 
servation of  the  body  are  based  upon  the  Ber- 
tillon method.  Many  of  the  traits  that  are  to 
be  observed  are  not  in  the  present  stage  of  our 
knowledge  indications  that  can  be  used  in  diag- 
nosing the  traits  of  mental  life,  but  a  systematic 
observation  of  differences  in  physical  conforma- 
tion will  train  the  observer  of  individuals  in 
ways  that  will  prove  practical. 

Observation  of  the  body  can  begin  with  notic- 
ing the  shape  and  size  of  the  head.  Is  it  large 
or  small  compared  with  the  size  of  the  body? 
Wide  or  narrow?  Long  or  short?  Has  it  any 
marked  peculiarities  of  outline?  The  head 
should  be  observed  from  several  points  of  view, 
all  its  outlines  studied,  and  if  possible  sketched. 


66  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

In  this  way,  by  making  comparative  observa- 
tions upon  a  large  group  of  children,  standards 
will  be  established  in  mind  that  will  serve  as  a 
basis  of  more  exact  work.  Great  variability 
will  be  found  in  the  contours  of  the  head,  and 
many  points  for  observation. 

Qualities  of  the  hair  are  regarded  as  impor- 
tant indications  from  the  ethnological  stand- 
point. Such  traits  as  the  following  can  be 
\[  noticed:  Color;  blond,  yellow,  brown  (light  or 
dark),  red,  black.  Is  it  straight,  curly;  abun- 
dant, thin;  coarse,  fine;  lustrous,  duUf 
V  Skin.  Is  the  amount  of  yellow  pigment  in 
the  skin  great  or  little?  Is  the  sanguinity  (the 
red  coloring)  great,  little?  Qualities  of  skin 
are  indications,  not  only  of  temi)erament,  but  of 
condition  of  health.  Its  firmness,  elasticity, 
smoothness,  moisture,  odor,  color,  warmth,  fine- 
ness of  texture  all  vary,  and  these  qualities 
should  be  observed. 

'^  Face.  Is  it  large  or  small  compared  with  tlic 
size  of  the  body  as  a  whole?  Is  it  wide,  nai-- 
row?  Seen  in  profile,  what  is  the  direction  and 
contour  of  an  imaginary  line  drawn  from  the 
forehead  to  a  point  where  the  ui^per  lip  joins 
the  nose,  and  from  there  to  the  point  of  the 
chin?  Estimate  the  angle  between  two  imag- 
inary lines,  one  drawn  from  the  center  of  the 
opening  of  the  ear  to  the  point  where  nose  and 
upper  lip  are  joined,  and  the  other  from  the 
last  named  point  to  the  front  of  the  forehead. 


BODY  CHARACTERISTICS  67 

Study  of  this  angle  in  many  children  will  show 
that  in  a  well-developed  child  the  angle  is  usu- 
ally a  right  angle,  or  nearly  that,  and  the  line 
from  forehead  to  chin  is  nearly  a  straight  line. 
A  small  facial  angle  and  a  strongly  curved 
facial  line  may  accompany  a  low  degree  of  men- 
tal development. 

Other  traits  of  the  face,  such  as  the  following, 
can  be  recorded :  Forehead ;  high,  low,  verti- 
cal, sloping,  broad,  narrow.  Contours  of 
mouth,  nose,  chin,  lips,  ears,  can  be  analyzed 
and  described  in  a  similar  manner.  Teeth 
should  be  observed  particularly.  They  may  be 
large,  small,  regular,  irregular,  vertical,  pro- 
jecting. 

In  the  Bertillon  system  the  eyes  are  minutely 
described,  for  the  eye  is  so  variable  and  so 
complex  that  an  accurate  description  of  it  is 
sufficiently  characteristic  of  an  individual  to  be 
a  means  of  almost  certain  identification.  Eyes 
are  classified  according  to  the  presence  or  ab- 
sence of  yellow  coloring  matter  in  them,  as  pig- 
mented and  unpigmented  eyes.  The  ground 
color  of  the  eye,  the  color  that  is  always  present 
at  birth,  is  blue;  over  this,  covering  it  wholly 
or  in  part,  a  pigmented  layer  develops  in  some 
eyes.  Both  classes  contain  many  varieties. 
Pigmented  eyes  may  be  yellow,  orange,  chest- 
nut, brown,  or  maroon.  Other  traits  of  the 
eyes  should  be  noticed ;  whether  large  or  small ; 
protruding,  sunken ;  bright  or  dull,  and  so  on. 


68  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

In  a  similar  manner,  by  noticing  all  possible 
variable  traits,  the  whole  body  can  be  analyzed 
and  described.  The  figure  can  be  described  as 
tall  or  short  for  the  age ;  stout,  slender ;  fleshy, 
thin ;  bones  may  be  large  or  small ;  the  muscular 
development  good,  poor;  neck,  long  or  short, 
thick  or  slender;  shoulders,  broad  or  narrow, 
square,  sloping,  flat  or  projecting;  arms,  long 
or  short;  hands,  large,  small,  wide,  narrow, 
long  or  short.  The  contour  of  the  lines  of  the 
palm  can  be  observed  in  detail  and  the  main 
lines  sketched  with  a  view  to  finding  relations 
between  these  traits  and  mental  constitution. 
The  chest  can  be  described  as  broad,  narrow, 
thin,  deep,  full,  flat;  legs,  long,  short,  etc. 

These  suggestions  are  intended  only  to  show 
how  to  proceed  in  studying  the  conformation 
of  the  body.  Many  other  important  character- 
istics could  be  mentioned,  and  analysis  could  be 
carried  much  further.  The  judgments  that  are 
called  for  are  relative ;  they  become  trustworthy 
in  proportion  as  large  numbers  of  individuals 
are  studied  comparatively.  Detailed  study  of 
the  body  cannot  fail  to  give  to  an  observer  a 
sense  of  the  great  complexity  of  personality, 
and  its  great  variability. 

Where  variability  is  great,  abnormal  varia- 
tion is  to  be  expected,  and  the  human  body  is 
no  exception  to  this  law.  Departures  from  the 
typical,  marked  enough  to  have  received  special 
names,  are  very  numerous  and  there  are  all 


BODY  CHARACTERISTICS  69 

degrees  of  variation  from  norm  or  average. 
Pronounced  defects  may  be  present  in  those 
who  are  apparently  normal  in  all  practical 
characteristics;  in  other  cases  even  slight  de- 
fects seem  to  be  connected  with  mental  devia- 
tion. Criminologists  of  some  schools  make 
much  of  a  certain  class  of  marks  called  stigmata 
of  degeneration.  These  are  often  found  in  nor- 
mal people,  and  alone  cannot  be  regarded  as 
evidence  of  abnormal  personality.  Yet  there 
are  physical  defects  that  mean  much  to  the 
mind  of  the  expert.  In  every  case  peculiarity 
of  body  is  at  least  an  indication  that  a  close 
study  of  the  mental  life  of  the  person  is  needed. 
Some  of  the  most  commonly  found  defects  are 
mentioned  below: 

The  head  may  be  too  large  or  too  small,  or 
asymmetrical;  there  may  be  large  projections 
or  depressions  in  its*  surface,  or  it  may  be  pecul- 
iarly shaped  as  a  whole  — too  narrow,  too 
wide,  projecting  at  the  top,  or  conical  in  shape. 
The  forehead  may  be  very  narrow  or  sloping, 
asymmetrical,  or  too  prominent.  The  ears  may 
be  unlike  or  asymmetrical,  very  large  or  very 
small,  projecting,  irregularly  implanted,  irregu- 
lar in  shape,  excessively  folded,  or  crumpled. 
Some  part  may  be  absent  or  undeveloped;  the 
outer  rim  may  be  imperfect,  too  large  or  too 
small,  deficient  in  development  or  grooved. 
The  face  may  be  undeveloped  as  a  whole  or  in 
some  of  its  parts,  or  asymmetrical,  having  one 


70  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

side  larger  than  the  other  or  different  in  out- 
line. The  features  may  be  very  coarse  and 
heavy  or  disproportionate  one  to  another.  The 
facial  angle  may  be  too  small;  the  mouth  may 
be  too  large  or  too  small,  or  may  have  one 
angle  lower  than  the  other.  The  lips  may  be 
thick,  chin  small  and  undeveloped,  gums  very 
large,  projecting  or  asymmetrical,  narrow,  V- 
shaped,  or  flat  and  square. 

The  i^alate  or  roof  of  the  mouth  may  be  too 
high,  too  shallow,  V-shaped,  saddle-shaped,  ir- 
regular; it  may  have  a  longitudinal  ridge  at 
the  top.  Abnormalities  of  the  teeth  are  very 
common,  and  in  the  eyes  of  the  expert  in  degen- 
eracy they  are  important.  There  may  be  too 
many  or  too  few  teeth,  the  presence  of  super- 
numerary cone-shaped  teeth  being  regarded  as 
one  of  the  special  marks  of  degeneracy.  Some 
of  the  teeth  may  have  more  than  the  normal 
number  of  cusps;  the  teeth  may  be  very  large 
or  too  small,  or  the  surfaces  may  be  notched  or 
uneven. 

Defects  of  other  parts  of  the  body  are  com- 
mon. Some  of  them  seem  certainly  connected 
with  mental  defects;  others  are  the  result  of 
diseases  like  tuberculosis,  rickets,  or  paralysis. 
The  body  as  a  whole  may  be  much  too  large  or 
too  small  for  the  age,  or  it  may  be  undeveloped 
and  retain  infantile  traits.  The  bones  of  the 
chest  may  project  forward,  making  pigeon- 
breast,  or  the  chest  as  a  whole  may  be  too 


BODY  CHARACTERISTICS  71 

round,  like  that  of  an  infant.  The  shoulders 
may  be  too  square,  or  too  sloping,  irregular, 
asymmetrical,  or  projecting  at  the  back.  The 
back  curves  may  be  abnormal,  such  defects  as 
hollow  back,  lateral  curvature  of  the  spine, 
angular  deformity,  being  common.  Hands, 
arms,  legs  may  also  have  deformities  of  many 
kinds. 

Even  superficial  observation  of  any  large 
group  of  children  will  disclose  many  departures 
from  the  normal,  typical,  or  average.  In  order 
to  have  clear  understanding  of  the  deformities 
that  have  been  mentioned,  it  will  be  best  to 
observe  them  in  children  that  have  them  in 
marked  degree.  Among  the  feeble-minded  they 
will  be  found  more  frequently,  and  usually  in 
a  more  marked  form,  than  among  the  normal, 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  many  children  with  pro- 
nounced mental  defects  seem  to  be  entirely  free 
from  bodily  marks.  Some  departure  from  type 
will  be  found  in  almost  every  one,  and  too  much 
should  not  be  made  of  slight  abnormalities  and 
peculiarities ;  but  the  child  with  decidedly  an 
atypical  body  should  be  singled  out  for  more 
careful  study  than  can  usually  be  given  him  by 
the  amateur  observer. 

Other  suggestions  for  observation  of  physical 
characteristics  can  be  found  in  the  literature  of 
phrenology  and  the  like,  all  valuable  if  studied 
in  conjunction  with  other  and  broader  concep- 
tions of  physical  individuality.     Especially  the 


72  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

charts  and  observation  systems  of  phrenologists 
and  physiog-nomists  will  be  found  helpful.  The 
literature  of  palmistry  is  also  interesting,  and 
contains  many  suggestive  facts.  Types  of 
hands  certainly  exist,  and  the  palmist's  classifi- 
cation of  fingers  into  square,  spatulate,  and 
conical  seems  to  indicate  important  traits.  The 
mounts  of  the  hand,  and  the  lines  of  the  palm 
are  also  worth  study.  That  there  are  racial 
differences  in  the  lines  of  the  palms  is  well 
known,  and  types  of  conformation  of  fingers 
appear  to  accompany  types  of  temperament, 
and,  in  the  opinion  of  some,  types  of  tendency 
to  disease. 

In  observing  and  recording  the  body  charac- 
teristics of  children,  it  is  best  to  arrange  in 
advance  an  outline  containing  the  names  of 
traits  that  are  to  be  observed  and  the  adjectives 
that  are  used  in  describing  the  degrees  or  kinds 
that  are  usually  found.  The  descriptive  terms 
can  then  be  underlined  as  the  traits  are  ob- 
served, and  notes  added  about  such  traits  as 
cannot  be  thus  systematically  described. 

But  analysis  and  description  of  parts  does 
not  exhaust  the  methods  of  judging  such  char- 
acteristics as  traits  of  the  body.  There  is  also 
a  balance  among  parts  that  is  characteristic  of 
the  person  as  a  whole,  and  of  many  variables 
into  larger  traits,  that  for  one  reason  or  an- 
other have  come  to  be  irstlietically  regarded. 
We  commonly  speak  of  a  child  as  having  a  good 


BODY  CHARACTERISTICS  73 

head,  or  good  eyes,  or  face,  or  figure.  Such 
judgments,  even  on  the  part  of  the  untrained 
observer,  have  value ;  for  our  aesthetic  approval 
and  disapproval  of  physical  traits,  like  our 
moral  judgments  of  mental  traits,  are  closely 
related  to  their  biological  value.  A  child  should 
be  studied,  therefore,  with  reference  to  those 
attitudes  toward  his  physical  traits  that  we 
commonly  call  the  aesthetic. 

REFERENCES 

The  literature  of  physical  abnormality  is  very 
voluminous.  Methods  for  description  of  normal  traits 
are  not  yet  well  worked  out.  The  literature  of  phren- 
ology, physiognomy,  and  palmistry  should  at  least  be 
looked  into  in  connection  with  these  topics.  Books 
on  ethnology  and  anthropology  should  be  consulted 
for  methods  of  describing  racial  characteristics. 
Brinton's  Races  and  Peoples,  works  of  Broca,  Topi- 
nard,  and  Galton  can  be  mentioned.  Books  of  Ber- 
tillon,  Warner,  Talbot,  contain  methods  of  observa- 
tion and  description  of  physical  abnormalities.  See 
especially  A.  Bertillon,  Signaletic  Instructions  and 
the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Anthropometrical  Identi- 
fication. 

IV 

MEASUREMENT    OF   THE   BODY 

Measurement  of  the  body  is  an  interesting 
and,  in  part,  practical  method  of  studying  in- 
dividuals.    Methods     that    are    now    in    use 


74  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

have  been  devised  for  various  purposes,  and 
the  measurements  that  are  taken  vary  with 
the  purpose  for  which  they  are  made.  An- 
thropometrists  measure  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
scribing exercise  and  regime.  Criminologists 
and  those  who  study  the  insane  and  the  defect- 
ive measure  to  detect  departures  from  the 
normal.  Physicians  measure  to  discover  dis- 
ease. Penologists  measure  for  the  purposes  of 
identification.  Biologists,  who  are  interested  in 
the  problems  of  variation,  measure  to  secure 
data  for  determining  laws  of  evolution.  A 
long  laboratory  course  in  measurement  of  the 
human  body  could  readily  be  prepared  which 
would  be  full  of  interest,  and  in  a  measure  im- 
mediately practical  for  the  individuals  that 
were  so  studied.  Performance  of  a  few  of  the 
most  common  measurements  and  study  of  indi- 
viduals with  reference  to  the  standards  for  these 
measurements  will  be  a  good  introduction  to 
work  in  the  exact  study  of  individuals. 

Height  is  usually  measured  by  means  of  a 
specially  constructed  rod  and  the  record  is  best 
made  in  centimeters  and  millimeters.  In  the 
absence  of  the  proper  form  of  apparatus,  cor- 
rect measurement  of  height  can  be  taken  by  a 
scale  attached  to  a  wall  at  the  proper  height. 
The  child  should  stand  with  the  hack  to  the 
wall,  with  feet  close  together.  He  should  then 
make  himself  as  tall  as  possible  without  raising 
his  heels   from   the  floor.     The  head   will   not 


BODY  MEASUREMENT  75 

rest  against  the  wall,  and  the  weight  of  the  body- 
will  be  felt  on  the  balls  of  the  feet.  In  taking 
the  measurement,  a  square  such  as  is  used  in 
drawing  can  be  used.  One  arm  of  it  should  be 
held  against  the  scale  and  the  square  lowered 
until  the  other  arm  rests  firmly  upon  the  highest 
point  of  the  head.  Shoes  should  be  removed  or 
the  height  of  the  heel  measured  separately  and 
deducted  from  the  total  height. 

Weight  can  be  tested  with  any  accurately 
adjusted  scale,  the  child  being  in  indoor  cloth- 
ing. About  five  pounds  are  to  be  allowed  for 
the  weight  of  clothing  in  estimating  the  actual 
weight. 

The  two  records,  height  and  weight,  and  the 
relation  between  them  show  important  charac- 
teristics of  the  child,  and  if  the  measurements 
are  taken  two  or  three  times  each  year,  still 
more  important  information  is  obtained.  Chil- 
dren of  school  age  should  show  increase  in  both 
these  measurements  each  year,  and  if  they  do 
not,  further  investigation  is  desirable.  Below 
is  given  a  table  of  height  and  weight  computed 
for  American  children  in  several  cities.  From 
it  the  relation  of  weight  to  height  for  each  year 
can  easily  be  computed.  The  method  of  com- 
paring an  individual  to  the  average  is  but  a 
rough  way  of  using  data  about  him,  but  it  will 
yield  conclusions  that  are  reliable  enough  to 
be  of  practical  use  in  many  cases. 


76  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 


TABLE  SnOWIXG  THE  AVERAGE  HEIGHT  AND  WEIGHT  OF  AMEBICAN 
CHILDHEN     (FROM    BLRK).      WEIGHT    GIVEN    IS    PRE- 
SUMABLY WEIGHT   IN   INDOOR  CLOTHING. 

Age  wt.  boys       wt.  girls       lit.  boys       ht.  girls 


5  1-2 

41.7 

41.3 

6  1-2 

45.2 

43.4 

43.9 

43.3 

7  1-2 

49.5 

47.7 

46.0 

45.7 

8  1-2 

54.5 

52.5 

48.8 

47.7 

9  1-2 

59.6 

57.4 

50.0 

49.7 

10  1-2 

65.4 

62.9 

51.9 

51.7 

11  1-2 

70.7 

69.5 

53.6 

53.8 

12  1-2 

76.9 

78.7 

55.4 

56.1 

13  1-2 

84.8 

88.7 

57.5 

58.5 

14  1-2 

95.2 

98.3 

60.0 

60.4 

15  1-2 

107.4 

106.7 

62.9 

61.6 

16  1-2 

121.0 

112.3 

64.9 

62.2 

17  1-2 

115.4 

66.5 

62.7 

18  1-2  114.9  67.4 

Sitting  height.  In  taking  this  measurement, 
the  height  is  taken  with  the  child  seated  upon 
a  stool  or  bench  of  convenient  height.  The 
height  of  the  stool  is  deducted  from  the  total. 
The  relation  of  sitting  to  standing  height  is 
regarded  as  an  important  index  of  vitality; 
ordinarily,  great  length  of  trunk  in  proportion 
to  height  accompanies  good  power  of  vital 
organs. 

Span  of  outstretched  arms  can  be  measured 
by  having  the  child  stand  facing  a  wall,  and 
taking  the  distance  from  a  point  touched  by  the 
middle  finger  of  one  hand  to  a  point  that  can 
just  be  reached  by  the  middle  finger  of  the  other 
hand. 


BODY  MEASUREMENT  77 

For  most  of  the  following  measurements 
some  kind  of  calipers  are  necessary.  Special 
instruments  can  be  purchased  for  making  vari- 
ous measurements.  The  best  calipers  for  head 
measurements  are  made  from  steel,  with  arms 
about  a  foot  in  length,  jointed  in  the  middle. 
They  can  be  used  also  for  chest  measurements, 
but  wooden  calipers  are  better  for  that  purpose. 
For  practice  purposes,  calipers  that  will  be 
quite  satisfactory  can  be  made  by  any  good 
mechanic  at  a  small  cost. 

Chest  measurements.  Those  that  are  usually 
taken  are  the  antero-posterior  and  the  lateral 
diameters,  and  the  circumference.  The  former 
diameter  is  to  be  taken  in  a  direction  perpen- 
dicular to  the  spinal  column  and  at  a  level  with 
the  armpits.  The  lateral  diameter  and  the  cir- 
cumference are  taken  at  the  same  height.  The 
expansion  of  the  chest  is  the  difference  between 
two  measurements  of  circumference,  one  taken 
at  full  inspiration,  and  the  other  at  full  ex- 
piration. 

Head  measurements.  Many  measurements 
of  the  head  are  made,  and  in  exact  work  the 
outline  of  the  head  in  several  directions  is 
taken.  For  the  purposes  of  the  school,  three 
measurements  can  be  made  to  advantage;  the 
circumference,  the  breadth,  and  the  length. 
The  circumference  is  taken  with  the  tapeline 
passed  around  the  head,  a  little  above  the  eye- 
brows, and  at  the  back  passing  over  a  point 


78  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

where  there  is  a  slight  projection  of  the  occipital 
bone.  With  a  little  practice  this  measurement 
can  be  made  uniformly;  the  accuracy  of  the 
observer  can  be  tested  by  repeating  the  meas- 
urements several  times.  Koughly  speaking, 
the  measure  of  the  circumference  is  a  measure 
of  the  size  of  the  head. 

The  length  or  maximal  antero-posterior  diam- 
eter of  the  head  can  be  taken  by  means  of  the 
steel  calipers.  One  point  should  rest  on  the 
ridge  between  the  eyebrows  and  the  other  point 
should  be  moved  about  at  the  back  of  the  head 
until  the  greatest  diameter  is  found.  After 
some  practice  this  measurement  can  be  taken 
with  a  very  small  error. 

The  maximal  lateral  diameter  of  the  head  or 
the  breadth  is  found  by  moving  the  calipers 
about  the  widest  part  of  the  head.  The  experi- 
menter should  stand  behind  the  child,  holding 
the  calipers  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  mov- 
ing both  points  together  in  the  same  plane  in 
a  zigzag  manner,  from  front  to  back,  until  the 
widest  point  is  found. 

The  relation  of  the  two  diameters  of  the  head 
to  each  other  is  a  characteristic  that  is  regarded 
as  important  by  anthropologists.  It  is  called 
the  ce])halic  index,  and  is  a  trait  that  changes 
but  little  in  the  individual  after  early  infancy. 
The  relation  is  usually  expressed  by  a  fraction 
obtained  by  dividing  widtli  by  length.  Heads 
are  classified  as  dolicocephalic,  mesocephalic, 


BODY  MEASUREMENT  79 

and  brachycephalic,  according  to  their  breadth 
in  relation  to  length.  Some  recent  studies  in- 
dicate that  there  is  some  relation  between  type 
of  head  and  characteristics  of  the  intelligence. 

Girth  of  wrist  is  taken  with  the  tapeline  at 
the  smallest  part  of  the  wrist;  this,  compared 
with  the  girth  of  the  forearm  taken  at  the 
largest  part,  will  show  something  about  the 
relation  of  skeletal  to  soft  tissues  of  the  body. 

Other  measurements  that  are  regarded  as  im- 
portant by  anthropologists  are :  Length  of  the 
upper  arm,  of  the  forearm,  of  the  upper  and 
lower  parts  of  the  leg,  length  of  hand  and  foot, 
various  fractional  heights,  and  the  girth  at  vari- 
ous points.  To  make  most  of  these  measure- 
ments, knowledge  of  the  anatomical  points  of 
the  body  is  required,  and  opportunity  to  meas- 
ure the  child  with  some  of  his  clothing  removed. 

Measurements  of  physical  traits  have  been 
developed  to  a  degree  of  refinement  that  would 
perhaps  seem  too  minute  to  anyone  except  a 
specialist  in  anthropometry;  but  it  is  better  to 
know  too  much  than  too  little  about  an  individ- 
ual. Roberts,  for  example,  gives  a  list  of  sixty- 
one  measurements.  Another  comprehensive 
system  is  that  of  Kellogg,  and  a  list  of  his 
measurements  can  be  used  for  reference.  If 
the  anatomical  terminology  is  not  familiar,  any 
good  text-book  on  anatomy  will  give  the 
required  information.  Tests  of  muscular 
strength  are  included.     The  measurements  are ; 


80  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

Height  standing,  length  of  sternum,  not  includ- 
ing the  cartilage,  abdomen  from  base  of  zyphoid 
cartilage  to  pubes,  sternum  to  umbilicus,  um- 
bilicus to  pubes,  circumference  of  neck,  of  upper 
chest  in  repose,  and  after  expiration  and  in- 
spiration, lower  chest  in  the  same  three  meas^ 
urements,  circumference  of  waist,  hips,  thigh, 
calf,  upper  arm,  forearm,  depth  of  chest,  of 
abdomen,  breadth  of  shoulders,  of  chest,  of 
waist,  of  hips,  stretch  of  arms,  bi-iliac  diameter, 
test  of  lung  capacity  with  spirometer. 

Tests  of  strength:  Strength  of  hand  flex- 
ors, hand  extensors,  forearm  pronators,  forearm 
supinators,  arm  flexors,  arm  extensors,  latissi- 
mus  dorsi,  deltoids,  pectorals,  shoulder  retract- 
ors, foot  flexors,  foot  extensors,  leg  flexors,  leg 
extensors,  thigh  flexors,  thigh  extensors,  thigh 
abductors,  thigh  adductors,  trunk  muscles  in 
anterior,  posterior,  and  lateral  movements, 
muscles  of  the  neck  in  the  same  measurements, 
inspiration  power  at  waist  and  chest,  inspira- 
tion and  expiration  tests  with  pneumotometer. 

From  these  measurements  many  coefficients 
are  estimated,  such  as  height-weight,  strength- 
weight,  respiration-weight,  strength-height,  res- 
piration-height, coefficient  of  vital  efficiency, 
coefficient  of  vital  development,  arms-legs  co- 
efficient, totals  for  arms,  legs,  trunk,  chest, 
entire  body. 

Other  systems  provide  for  somewhat  differ- 
ent measurements,  and  there  is  no  exact  agree- 


BODY  MEASUREMENT  81 

ment,  either  iu  the  number  of  measurements 
that  should  be  made,  or  the  points  on  the  skel- 
eton that  should  be  used  as  marks.  Some 
investigators  have  special  methods  or  tests,  the 
importance  of  which  they  emphasize.  Seaver, 
for  example,  measures  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  body  by  computing  the  relation  between  the 
weight  of  the  body  in  air  and  its  weight  in 
water.  Some  of  the  methods  of  measurement 
that  have  been  devised  are  interesting,  aside 
from  the  results  that  are  obtained  by  their  use, 
for  they  illustrate  the  great  complexity  of  the 
human  body,  and  the  number  of  its  variable 
traits.  Such  a  system  as  that  devised  by  Rieger 
for  taking  head  measurements,  for  example, 
can  be  mentioned.  First  the  exact  vertex  of 
the  head  is  located,  and  at  this  point  the  center 
where  two  threads  are  tied  together  is  placed 
and  the  threads  let  fall  over  fixed  points  of 
the  skull.  The  circumference  of  the  head  is 
then  marked  by  a  rubber  band.  With  these 
lines  fixed,  measurements  and  outlines  are  taken 
by  means  of  lead  wire,  and  the  lines  are  repro- 
duced upon  a  chart,  on  which  the  fixed  points 
are  indicated.  From  the  chart  any  measure- 
ment of  the  head  that  is  required  can  then  be 
computed. 

For  the  purposes  of  research,  many  other 
measurements  and  tests  of  the  body  are  made, 
and  there  are  many  kinds  of  apparatus  and 
instruments  in  use  in  the  laboratory  for  this 


82  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

work.  A  chapter  should,  perhaps,  be  devoted 
to  the  exact  measurement  of  physiological 
processes  of  the  body  and  the  measurement  of 
internal  organs,  but  this  is  a  field  largely  closed 
to  the  amateur  experimenter,  partly  because  of 
the  technical  knowledge  of  physiology  and  an- 
atomy that  is  required,  and  in  part  because  com- 
plicated apparatus  is  needed,  and  the  facilities 
of  a  laboratory.  Something  should  be  said 
about  the  many  interesting  instruments  now  in 
use.  Many  of  them  are  common  to  the  psycho- 
logical and  physiological  laboratory,  and  are 
also  used  in  medical  work,  the  same  measure- 
ment being  made  from  several  points  of  view. 
Some  should  more  properly  be  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  description  of  movements  rather 
than  of  structures  of  the  body.  For  measuring 
and  describing  qualities  of  the  respiratory  func- 
tion, there  are  spirometer,  pneumograph,  and 
pneumotometer;  for  circulation,  plethysmo- 
graph,  sphygmograph,  cardiograph;  for  move- 
ment, the  ergograph  and  dynamometer.  For 
examination  of  the  size  and  contour  of  internal 
organs  there  are  now  the  methods  of  the  X-ray, 
and  in  the  medical  laboratory  will  be  found  in- 
struments for  testing  reactions  to  electrical 
stimulus,  and  many  others. 

Such  practice  work  in  anthropometry  as  is 
suggested  here  cannot,  of  course,  be  made  al- 
ways definitely  practical.     Yet  anyone  that  is 


BODY  MEASUREMENT  83 

enough  interested  to  acquire  a  few  of  the  sim- 
plest methods  can  become  sufi&ciently  informed 
to  detect  the  more  pronounced  departures  from 
the  normal,  and  at  least  to  direct  individuals 
to  the  expert  for  further  examination  and 
treatment.  Some  knowledge  of  methods  of 
measuring  and  observing  the  human  body 
should  be  possessed  by  all  who  control  children, 
so  that  they  can  work  with  the  experts  in  physi- 
cal culture  and  medicine,  who  are  becoming 
more  and  more  valuable  coadjutors  in  the  work 
of  education. 

In  the  detail  of  methods  the  main  purpose  of 
testing  and  measuring  the  body  should  not  be 
lost  from  sight.  It  is  not  knowledge  about  the 
part  that  is  measured  that  is  usually  sought, 
but  by  means  of  examining  those  parts  of  the 
body  that  are  most  accessible  to  observation, 
it  is  hoped  that  a  knowledge  of  the  vital  mental 
and  physical  functions  with  which  they  are  re- 
lated may  be  gained.  To  what  extent  the  super- 
ficial traits  are  so  connected,  and  how,  is  for 
the  most  part  unknown,  but  the  study  of  the 
accessible  trait  prepares  the  way  for  study  of 
the,  at  present,  inaccessible  trait.  We  wish  to 
know  with  regard  to  an  individual  the  func- 
tional capacity  and  vitality  of  the  organism  as 
a  whole,  and  the  relative  strength  and  resistance 
of  the  physiological  systems  or  groups  of  organs 
that  comprise  the  body,  and  whose  combined 


fi4  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

functioning  make  the  efficiency  of  the  man  as 
a  whole ;  but  at  present  we  are  a  long  way  from 
the  ideal  of  a  complete  biometry. 

REFERENCES 

The  most  comprehensive  and  most  practical  guide 
for  the  study  of  anthropometry  is  the  Manual  of 
Physical  Measurements,  by  W.  W.  Hastings.  It  in- 
cludes descriptions  of  apparatus,  directions  for  per- 
forming measurements,  and  tables  containing  norms 
for  both  boys  and  girls  of  all  school  ages,  and  for  all 
the  important  measurements.  Other  manuals  some- 
what similar  in  scope  are  those  of  Seaver,  Gulick,  and 
Roberts.  The  Reports  of  the  Department  of  Re- 
search^ Chicago  Public  School  contain  valuable  in- 
formation about  physical  measurements  of  children. 
For  statistics  of  growth  in  height  and  weight  the  most 
complete  report  is  that  by  F.  Burk:  Growth  of  Chil- 
dren in  Height  and  Weight,  American  Journal  of 
Psychology,  April,  1898. 

Biometrika  contains  many  articles  on  the  subject 
of  variation  in  physical  traits  and  the  relations  among 
them.  These  articles  are  somewhat  technical,  but 
they  will  show  what  is  being  done  in  the  field  of  exact 
measurement. 

K.  Pearson :  On  the  Relation  of  Intelligence  to  Size 
and  Shape  of  the  Head,  and  to  Other  I'hysical  and 
Mental  Characters.  Biometrika,  Vol.  5,  1906,  pp. 
105-146. 

Boas  and  Wissler:  Statistics  of  Growth.  Report  of 
the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  1896-7. 

G.  M.  West :  Observations  of  the  Relation  of  Physi- 
cal Development  to  Intellectual  Ability  Made  on  the 


MOVEIHENT :     OBSERVATIONAL  85 

School  Children  of  Toronto,  Canada.     Science,  N.  S. 
IV,  1895,  106-159. 

F.  Boas :  Anthropological  Investigations  in  Schools. 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  Vol.  II,  pp.  225-228. 


OBSERVATION    OF   MOVEMENT 

Information  about  individuals  that  is  of 
both  practical  and  theoretical  importance  can 
be  obtained  by  observing  their  habitual  mo- 
tions. The  best  opportunity  for  observing  the 
child  as  a  moving  body  is  during  his  free 
play.  It  can  soon  be  determined  whether  he  is 
essentially  an  active  or  an  inactive  child.  The 
character  of  the  movements  should  be  noticed. 
The  movements  of  the  sound,  active  child  are 
free,  graceful,  and  animal-like  in  quality.  If 
they  are  awkward,  difficult,  or  restrained,  other 
signs  of  deficient  activity  should  be  looked  for. 
Skill  should  be  noticed,  as  in  playing  games 
such  as  baseball,  which  requires  display  of  both 
activity  and  accurate  coordination;  or  marbles 
that  requires  more  minute  coordination.  Infor- 
mation should  be  obtained  from  the  child  about 
his  motor  interests ;  in  games,  occupations,  and 
school  work. 

A  simple  test  that  is  recommended  by  War- 
ner can  be  used  to  obtain  information  about 
the  child's  neuro-muscular  constitution.     It  is 


86  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

made  thus :  "When  an  opportunity  occurs  under 
natural  conditions,  extend  your  hand  to  the 
child  and  take  his  hand,  with  some  such  remark 
as  **  Good  morning,"  or  ''  How  do  you  do  this 
morning?  "  Notice  the  characteristics  of  the 
handclasp  of  the  child.  Is  it  firm  or  limp? 
Is  it  steady  or  spasmodic?  Is  there  squirming 
of  the  whole  body,  or  do  the  movements  seem 
under  control?  Is  posture  good?  Are  the 
movements  of  the  face  normal,  in  excess,  or 
is  there  deficiency  of  reaction?  Does  the  child 
look  steadily  at  you,  or  is  the  glance  shifting 
or  downcast?  Is  there  rapid  change  of  color  of 
the  face?  Other  points  for  observation  will 
occur  to  the  experimenter;  record  should  be 
made  of  all  that  is  observed. 

Another  simple  method  of  studying  charac- 
teristic movement  habits  of  the  child  is  called 
the  hand-balance  test.  It  was  also  first  de 
scribed  by  AVarner.  The  child  is  requested  to 
stand  with  hands  at  the  sides,  and  then  to  hold 
them  out  in  front  of  him  with  palms  down. 
The  posture  that  is  assumed  is  then  studied. 
Posture  being  the  result  of  movements,  the 
character  of  the  muscular  control  is  indicated 
by  it.  If  the  balance  is  good,  the  arms  will  be 
held  at  the  same  height,  wrists  and  fingers  will 
be  horizontal,  the  fingers  held  closely  together, 
the  thumbs  close  to  the  fingers  and  nearly  on 
a  level  with  them.  The  typical  defective  posi- 
tion of  the  child  with  bad  neuro-muscular  con- 


MOVEMENT:     OBSERVATIONAL  37 

trol  is  that  in  which  the  arms  are  held  at 
unequal  height,  the  back  bent  and  hollowed, 
arms  drooping  forward,  hands  bent,  thumbs  and 
fingers  drooping.  This  posture  is  sometimes 
the  result  of  acute  fatigue,  but  it  is  also  charac- 
teristic of  the  badly  organized  neuro-muscular 
system,  and  its  presence  in  a  child  in  a  marked 
degree  always  means  the  need  of  investigation 
of  the  cause.  A  little  practice  in  performing 
the  test  with  large  groups  of  children  will  en- 
able one  to  use  the  method  with  practical  results. 
Another  defective  posture  is  the  nervous  bal- 
ance, less  commonly  seen,  in  which  the  palms 
are  bent  backward,  the  fingers  curved,  and  some- 
times spread  apart.  This  posture  is  often  seen 
in  those  subject  to  over-excitability  or  tension, 
especially  in  nervous  girls. 

Much  can  be  learned  about  a  child  by  ob- 
serving his  movements  as  he  is  busy  at  his 
ordinary  mental  occupations.  Movements  of 
the  face  should  first  be  observed,  when  the  child 
is  active,  as  in  recitation.  Compared  with  other 
children,  are  the  facial  movements  many  or 
few?  Is  there  over-mobility,  or  lack  of  expres- 
sion 1  Are  movements  of  the  eyes  steady,  nerv- 
ous, shifting?  The  upper  and  lower  parts  of 
the  face  should  be  observed  separately. 

Then  one  should  pass  to  observation  of  the 
movements  of  the  body.  Are  the  movements 
many  or  few,  excessive  or  deficient?  Are  there 
any  habitual  movements  of  hands  or  feet  ?     Are 


88  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

there  frequent  nervous  or  jerky  movements? 
Is  the  posture  erect  or  drooping?  What  is  the 
habitual  position  of  the  feet  in  standing? 

Observations  should  also  be  made  when  the 
child  is  busy,  seated  at  his  ordinary  mental 
work.  Movements  of  forehead,  mouth,  and 
eyes  should  be  noticed  particularly.  Habitual 
movements  of  any  part  of  the  body,  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  movements,  amount  of  restless- 
ness, habits  of  attention  and  distraction  should 
be  observed.  Complete  rules  for  observing 
movements  in  this  way  cannot  be  given.  They 
should  be  made  a  few  at  a  time,  and  the  child 
under  special  observation  should  be  compared 
with  others.  In  this  way  the  eye  is  trained  to 
detect  differences  that  are  usually  overlooked; 
and  certain  types  are  recognized  which  will 
serve  as  standards  for  comparison. 

A  few  abnormalities  of  movement  can  be  men- 
tioned, with  special  reference  to  the  defects  of 
school  children.  There  may  be  excessive  mobil- 
ity shown  in  almost  incessant  action  of  the 
body,  api>earing  especially  in  facial  movements, 
such  as  blinking,  scowling,  movements  of  mouth 
and  tongue.  There  may  be  habitual  movements 
of  some  group  of  muscles,  such  as  twitching, 
or  rhythmical  performance  of  the  same  move- 
ment. jMovcments  may  be  unequal  in  the  two 
sides  of  face  or  body.  In  some  cases  a  decided 
deficiency  of  movement  will  be  observed,  appear- 
ing   in    lack    of    expression    of    the    face    and 


MOVEMENT :     OBSERVATIONAL  89 

« 
drooping  postures.     Two  types  of  apparently 

excessive  movement  may  be  observed  which, 
though  appearing  alike  on  superficial  notice, 
are  very  different  in  meaning.  In  the  first  case 
an  excess  of  movement  is  due  to  multiplicity 
of  occupational  interests ;  the  child  is  constantly 
in  motion,  but  the  movements  are,  for  the  most 
part,  controlled  and  purposive.  In  a  quite  dif- 
ferent type  of  over-mobility  the  movements  are 
automatic,  unintentional,  or,  it  may  be,  take 
place  in  opposition  to  effort  to  control  them. 
Apparently  there  are  two  kinds  of  still  child. 
There  is  first  the  motor  deficiency  that  is  the 
result  of  lack  of  nervous  energy;  the  child  is 
still  because  little  is  taking  place  in  the  mind 
that  leads  to  action.  There  is  also  a  stillness 
that  results  from  exceptional  control  and  con- 
centration of  effort. 

Postures  should  be  observed  also  as  indica- 
tions of  neuro-muscular  control :  habitual  ec- 
centric or  atypical  postures  should  always  be 
observed  and  recorded.  In  standing  there  may 
be  unequal  position  of  shoulders,  protruding  of 
abdomen,  and  hollowness  of  back.  The  posi- 
tion of  feet  may  be  unequal,  one  much  in 
advance  of  the  other;  or  the  feet  may  be  very 
wide  apart,  as  though  coordination  were  imper- 
fect, and  standing  difficult.  Sitting  postures 
•should  also  be  observed,  and  the  child's  habitual 
postures  described;  whether  erect  or  drooping, 
or  in  any  way  exceptional. 


90  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

The  manual  work  of  the  child  should  be  stud- 
ied with  reference  to  the  qualities  of  his  volun- 
tary movements.  It  can  be  described  in  such 
terms  as  the  following:  Accurate,  skillful, 
quick,  neat,  quiet,  careful,  inaccurate,  awkward, 
slow,  untidy,  noisy,  careless. 

Gait  may  be  described  as:  Light,  heavy, 
rapid,  slow,  awkward,  graceful,  regular,  irregu- 
lar. Defects  commonly  seen  are  jerkiness  and 
irregularity  of  steps,  swaying  or  bobbing  of 
body,  lack  of  coordination,  indirection. 

The  voice  being  a  motor  function  in  part,  par- 
ticipates in  the  qualities  of  the  movements  of 
an  individual.  It  can  be  described  as :  Strong, 
weak,  clear,  indistinct  or  muffled,  smooth,  jerky, 
high-pitched,  low-pitched,  rapid,  slow.  Defects 
as  stammering,  lisping,  tongue-tie,  defective  ar- 
ticulation, should  be  noticed. 

Expression  of  the  face  is  also,  in  part,  due  to 
muscular  qualities,  and  can  be  regarded  as  pos- 
ture resulting  from  motor  activity  in  the  mus- 
cles of  the  face.  Expressions  can  be  analyzed 
and  described  in  terms  of  movement  or  position, 
and  they  can  also  be  described  by  such  terms  as : 
Frightened,  anxious,  suffering,  timid,  relaxed, 
tense,  determined,  confident,  sullen,  cross,  weak, 
strong,  haughty,  bold,  pleasant,  light,  serious, 
frank,  deceitful,  keen,  stupid  —  and  many 
others. 

Observation  of  characteristics  of  movement, 
as  the  above  suggestions  should  show,  is  a  far- 


MOVEMENT:     OBSERVATIONAL  91 

reaching  method  of  studying  individuality. 
Mind  is  expressed  in  movement,  and  the  contin- 
uous play  of  movement  that  goes  on  in  the 
body  discloses  the  nature  of  the  mental  proc- 
esses that  incite  or  control  the  movements,  and 
also  indicates  the  condition  of  the  body  itself. 
No  part  of  individual-study  will  yield  better  re- 
turns to  the  practical  student  than  the  study  of 
movement,  and  although  the  precision  of  exact 
experiment  is  lacking,  many  clues  to  important 
traits  of  the  individual  will  be  found  in  the 
characteristics  of  movement. 

REFERENCES 

F.  Warner:  The  Children,  and  other  books  by  the 
same  writer.  Dr.  Warner  appears  to  have  developed 
this  method  of  individual-study  further  than  anyone 
else. 

F.  Burk:  From  Fundamental  to  Accessory  in  the 
Development  of  the  Nervous  System  and  of  Move- 
ment. Pedagogical  Seminary,  Vol.  VI,  1895,  5-64. 
Contains  a  discussion  of  the  development  of  movement 
in  the  individual  as  related  to  its  development  in  the 
race. 

Holt  and  also  Sachs  may  be  consulted  for  accounts 
of  abnormal  movements  in  the  child,  and  of  diseases 
that  produce  certain  defects  of  motor  activity. 

E.  H.  Lindley:  A  Preliminary  Study  of  Some  of 
the  INIotor  Phenomena  of  JMental  Effort.  American 
Journal  of  Psychology,  Vol.  VII,  July,  1895,  491- 
517. 


92  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

VI 

THE    EXPERIMENTAL.   STUDY    OF    MOVEMENT 

Experimental  study  of  movement  can  be 
made  in  many  ways;  for  movement,  con- 
sidered psychologically  and  physiologically,  is 
complex,  and  several  variable  qualities  can  be 
isolated  for  study.  Movements  vary  in  (1) 
rapidity;  (2)  strength;  (3)  accuracy  of  control; 
(4)  range;  (5)  endurance.  These  qualities  are 
themselves  also  complex  and  various  aspects  of 
them  can  be  considered  separately.  Endurance, 
for  example,  is  a  result  of  several  factors,  and 
though  it  can  be  measured  as  a  separate  trait, 
its  factors  can  also  be  distinguished,  and,  in 
part,  calculated.  Besides  the  traits  that  have 
been  mentioned,  the  capacity  of  an  individual 
for  learning  a  movement,  or  for  improvement 
can  be  measured. 

Strength  of  movement  is  usually  tested  by 
means  of  some  form  of  dynamometer.  Various 
muscle-groups  can  be  tested,  but  for  a  single 
test  of  muscular  strength,  the  strength  of  the 
handclasp  is  usually  selected.  It  appears  to 
be  correlated  with  strength  of  other  movements, 
and  it  can  be  used  as  a  rough  measure  of  the 
power  of  the  individual  to  exert  muscular  force, 
a  characteristic  which  we  now  know  is  by  no 
means  entirely  due  to  quality  of  the  muscle,  but 
is  a  complex  result  of  several  factors,  in  part 


MOVEMENT :     EXPERIMENTAL  93 

psychical.  Although  a  makeshift  for  a  dyna- 
mometer can  easily  be  constructed  from  a  spring 
balance  of  sufficient  force,  if  accurate  results 
are  demanded,  one  must  be  purchased.  For  use 
with  children,  an  instrument  with  adjustable 
handles  is  best. 

It  should  be  understood  at  once  that  all  tests 
in  which  a  maximal  effort  is  required,  examine, 
not  a  single  trait,  but  a  complex  result  of  several 
factors,  the  numerical  result  standing  for  the 
whole  product.  Ability  to  make  an  effort,  and 
willingness  to  do  so,  enter  into  such  a  simple 
operation  as  making  the  strongest  possible 
handclasp  in  unknown  proportions.  There  are 
many  ways  of  eliminating  in  part  some  of  the 
variables  that  we  wish  to  disregard  in  the  meas- 
urement. If  the  greatest  possible  handclasp  is 
required,  the  factor  of  willingness  to  exert  effort 
must  be  made  uniform  in  some  way,  and  this  is 
not  easily  accomplished.  In  the  case  of  some 
children  a  mere  suggestion  is  sufficient  to  bring 
out  the  greatest  effort ;  others  need  the  stimulus 
of  competition  or  reward.  Much  depends  upon 
the  experimenter's  ability  to  perceive  all  the 
factors  that  are  involved,  and  to  adapt  the 
method  of  procedure  to  the  conditions.  Usually 
in  such  an  experiment  as  taking  the  strength 
of  handclasp,  best  results  are  obtained  by  excit- 
ing competition,  and  by  offering  a  reward  for 
the  best  record.  But  with  these  precautions  it 
can  easily  be  seen  that  conditions  are  not  made 


94  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

entirely  uniform,  psychologically  considered; 
indeed,  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  constantly  that 
even  the  most  simple  test  upon  a  human  being 
is  no  mere  setting  of  a  task  and  reading  of  the 
result,  but  a  problem  that  nmst  be  studied 
broadly.  In  taking  the  handclasp,  then,  the  ex- 
perimenter aims  at  securing  the  child's  greatest 
effort.  Several  trials  are  to  be  made,  and  the 
best  single  record  is  to  be  taken  as  a  measure 
of  strength.  Below  is  given  a  table  showing  in 
kilograms  the  strength  of  handclasp  of  children 
measured  in  the  Chicago  public  schools.  The 
figures  show  the  arithmetical  mean,  a  quantity 
slightly  different  from  the  average. 

TABLE  SHOWING  STRENGTH  OF  HAND  CLASP 


FBOXI    KKPORT    OK    THE 

BESEABCII     UEPABTMENT 

CHICAGO    PUBLIC 

SCHOOLS. 

age 

b.r. 

b.l. 

g-r- 

gl- 

4 

6.Q 

6.0 

6.0 

5.25 

5 

9.0 

8.0 

7.5 

7.0 

6 

10.5 

10.0 

9.5 

9.0 

7 

12.0 

11.5 

11.0 

10.0 

8 

13.5 

13.0 

12.0 

11.0 

9 

Ki.O 

15.0 

l.-J.O 

12.5 

10 

17.0 

IG.O 

15.0 

14.0 

11 

1!».0 

18.0 

17.0 

15.5 

12 

22.0 

20.0 

19.0 

17.5 

13 

2.3.0 

23.0 

22.0 

21.0 

14 

28.0 

26.0 

25.0 

23.0 

15 

35.0 

32.0 

28.0 

25.0 

IC 

41.0 

38.0 

29.0 

27.0 

17 

45.5 

43.0 

30.0 

27.5 

18 

49.5 

46.5 

31.0 

29.0 

19-20 

51.0 

48.0 

32.0 

30.0    (g  19) 

MOVEMENT :     EXPERIMENTAL  95 

In  making  such  a  test  as  the  above,  the  nu- 
merical result  is  not  all  that  is  obtained.  When 
a  child  is  taken  out  of  his  ordinary  routine  and 
set  at  a  novel  task  it  is  an  excellent  opportunity 
for  discovering  some  of  his  most  distinguishing 
characteristics.  Records  should  be  made  of  his 
attitude  toward  the  experiment;  what  he  said 
and  did,  the  interest  and  the  effort  that  he  ex- 
hibited. 

Rapidity  of  movement  can  be  examined  in 
several  ways  without  the  use  of  complicated 
apparatus.  The  best  movement  upon  which  to 
experiment  is  tapping  at  maximal  rate  with 
the  finger.  It  is  a  natural  movement  and  one 
that  can  fairly  easily  be  brought  under  uniform 
experimental  conditions.  The  number  of  dots 
that  can  be  made  with  a  pencil  in  30  seconds 
can  be  used  as  a  rough  measure  of  rapidity. 
Conditions  must  be  made  uniform  as  to  general 
position  of  the  body,  manner  of  holding  the 
pencil,  and  the  like,  but  the  tapping  should  be 
done  with  a  free  movement,  the  child  being  told 
to  tap  as  rapidly  as  possible.  For  more  accu- 
rate tests  of  tapping,  apparatus  such  as  that 
described  by  Bryan  (American  Journal  of 
Psychology,  Vol.  5,  p.  139)  can  easily  be  con- 
structed. Standards  for  school  ages  for  tap- 
ping with  a  free  movement  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  established,  but  comparison  of  individuals 
with  a  large  group  will  give  information  about 
exceptional    cases    that    will    be    interesting. 


96  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

Tests  made  upon  200  clnldren  in  New  York  City 
show  an  average  of  approximately  .180  second 
as  the  time  of  making  a  dot,  when  10-second 
periods  are  used.  Children  ranged  in  age  from 
eight  to  sixteen  years.  Averages  for  boys 
were:  ten  years,  .181  sec;  eleven,  .176  sec.; 
twelve,  .169  sec.  Averages  for  girls :  ten  years, 
.193  sec. ;  eleven,  .182  sec. ;  twelve,  .181  sec. 

For  estimating  rapidity  of  movement  these 
methods  are  probably  better  than  the  single 
reaction  method  which  requires  the  use  of  com- 
plicated measuring  apparatus.  None  of  these 
methods  however  are  very  analytic,  for  they 
test  several  qualities  of  the  individual ;  properly 
they  should  be  discussed  also  psychologically, 
and  an  attempt  made  to  discover  exactly  what 
the  factors  in  the  process  tested  are. 

A  characteristic  of  the  individual  that  has  as 
yet  received  but  little  attention  is  the  relation 
of  habitual  or  preferred  action,  mental  or  physi- 
cal, to  the  greatest  capacity.  The  habit  of  the 
individual  can  be  tested  for  such  a  trait  as 
rapidity  of  performing  a  simple  movement  such 
as  tapping.  The  relation  between  optimum  and 
maximum  rate  can  be  tested  in  several  ways. 
The  method  of  tapping  can  be  used;  prelim- 
inary experiments  being  made  in  which  care 
is  taken  not  to  suggest  speed  or  competition, 
or  tests  can  be  made  after  the  speed  tests  in 
which  the  children  are  directed  to  tap  at  the 
rate  that  seems  easiest,  most  pleasant,  or  most 


MOVEMENT :     EXPERIMENTAL  97 

natural  to  them.  Writing  can  also  be  used  as 
test  method,  the  quantity  of  writing  that  is 
done  in  a  leisurely  task  being  compared  with 
the  quantity  that  can  be  done  at  greatest  speed. 
Copying  from  a  book,  using  material  that  is 
new,  or  writing  passages  that  are  well  mem- 
orized can  be  tested  in  a  similar  manner.  Stern 
used  for  the  tests  of  optimum  rate,  the  rate  of 
beating  a  triple  rhythm. 

The  rapidity  with  which  a  more  complicated 
movement  can  be  performed  can  be  tested  by 
having  the  child  deal  an  ordinary  pack  of  play- 
ing cards  into  four  piles.  Some  preliminary 
practice  should  be  allowed  before  a  record  is 
taken. 

Control  of  movement  is  a  loose  term  for  sev- 
eral qualities,  such  as  steadiness,  accuracy,  re- 
sistance to  stimulus,  and  the  like.  Accuracy 
of  a  movement  can  be  tested  fairly  well  by  hav- 
ing the  child  strike  with  a  pencil  at  crosses  made 
upon  a  large  sheet  of  paper.  Twelve  crosses 
can  be  made  in  irregular  position  on  the  paper, 
and  the  child  must  strike  at  the  center  of  each. 
Conditions  should  be  made  uniform,  and  some 
preliminary  practice  should  be  allowed.  Fixed 
rules  must  be  followed  with  regard  to  the  plac- 
ing of  the  paper,  manner  of  holding  the  pencil, 
height  to  which  it  is  raised,  and  in  other  details 
that  will  readily  be  suggested  to  the  experi- 
menter. If  experiments  are  made  on  several  oc- 
casions, and  several  records  are  taken,  a  study 


98  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

of  the  numerical  results  will  be  likely  to  show 
some  types  of  control  of  movement.  The  aver- 
age error  for  the  day  and  for  the  whole  series 
should  be  computed,  and  also  the  average  devia- 
tion of  the  trials  from  the  average,  the  latter 
in  order  to  find  the  variability  of  control. 

Another  test  of  accuracy  of  movement  can  be 
made  by  means  of  the  game  in  which  a  bail  or 
beanbag  is  tossed  at  a  hole  in  a  board.  The 
game  becomes  an  experiment  if  fixed  conditions 
are  prescribed,  such  as  an  exact  distance,  a 
fixed  method  of  holding  the  ball,  uniformity  of 
surroundings.  Series  of  about  twenty-five 
trials  each  should  be  taken. 

A  refinement  of  the  test  just  described  was 
used  by  Bagley.  The  apparatus  consists  of  a 
target  at  which  marbles  are  tossed,  the  records 
being  made  on  a  carbon  paper  placed  between 
the  target  and  the  recording  sheet.  This  ap- 
paratus can  easily  be  arranged  by  an  amateur 
experimenter,  and  it  can  be  used  for  several 
tests,  especially  for  studying  improvement  in 
control  of  movement,  or  the  method  of  learning 
a  new  movement. 

Tests  of  steadiness  can  be  made  simply  with- 
out apparatus.  A  simple  experiment  is  per- 
formed by  having  the  child  hold  out  at  arm's 
length  a  long  pointer,  and  directing  him  to  hold 
it  as  steadily  as  possible.  Degree  of  unsteadi- 
ness can  lie  estimated  by  the  eye  by  observing 
the  motion  of  the  end  of  the  pointer;  or,  if  a 


MOVEMENT :     EXPERIMENTAL  99 

more  accurate  means  is  required,  a  rule  can  be 
attached  perpendicularly  to  a  convenient  sur- 
face such  as  the  edge  of  a  door  and  the  amount 
of  unsteadiness  measured  by  having  the  pointer 
held  close  to  the  scale  but  not  touching  it. 
Both  the  extent  of  the  excursions  of  the  pointer, 
and  the  characteristics  of  the  unsteadiness  such 
as  rhythm,  rapidity,  and  the  like  should  be  ob- 
served. Movements  of  the  face  and  body 
should  also  be  noticed.  The  Warner  hand-bal- 
ance test  can  be  used  in  studying  steadiness  of 
control.  Movements  of  fingers,  wrists,  arms, 
and  the  whole  body  should  be  noticed. 

Other  experiments  upon  steadiness  of  move- 
ment or  control  can  be  made  by  means  of  an 
automatograph,  which  consists  in  its  simplest 
form  of  two  slates,  one  of  which  is  made  to 
move  over  the  other  by  placing  marbles  between 
them,  A  recording  device  is  arranged  by  at- 
taching an  arm  to  the  upper  slate  and  to  the 
arm  a  vertical  tube  through  which  a  pencil  is 
passed,  slightly  weighted,  so  as  to  press  firmly 
upon  a  smoked  paper  as  the  slate  is  moved. 
Steadiness  is  tested  by  having  the  child  place 
his  hand  upon  the  slate,  and  try  to  hold  it 
as  still  as  possible.  The  tracing  on  the  paper 
is  the  record  of  the  unsteadiness.  Several 
types  will  be  seen,  according  to  whether  there 
is  much  or  little  movement,  great  or  little  varia- 
bility in  control,  rapid  or  slow  movement. 
Other  more  accurate  tests  of  steadiness  require 


100  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

some  equipment  in  the  way  of  electrical  ap- 
paratus. Bagley  used  a  scroll  cut  from  tin  foil 
with  a  path  1  mm.  in  width.  An  electrical  at- 
tachment indicated  the  number  of  times  the 
edge  of  the  path  was  struck  in  trying  to  follow 
the  path  with  a  writing  point. 

Control  of  a  reflex  movement  can  be  examined 
roughly  without  apparatus  or  more  accurately 
by  means  of  a  simple  device  that  can  easily 
be  arranged.  The  reflex  wink  is  a  convenient 
reflex  upon  which  to  experiment.  The  power 
to  control  it  is  very  variable  among  children. 
Some  measure  of  the  control  can  be  made  by 
making  quick  movements  toward  the  eyes  of 
the  child  with  a  pencil.  The  child  should  be 
seated  comfortably  and  told  to  fixate  a  point 
about  ten  feet  from  the  eyes.  The  movements 
are  to  be  made  at  intervals  of  about  two  sec- 
onds until  the  reflex  is  under  control.  The 
measure  of  ability  to  control  is  the  number  of 
movements.  Apparatus  for  this  experiment 
that  can  easily  be  constructed,  or  from  which 
simpler  models  can  be  planned,  is  described  in 
the  American  Journal  of  Psychology,  Vol.  XI, 
p.  244. 

Fatigue  of  movement  has  been  studied  by 
many  methods,  but  somewhat  unsatisfactorily 
for  the  most  part,  on  account  of  the  difficulty 
of  isolating  muscles  for  experiment.  The  sim- 
plest method  of  testing  fatigue  of  a  movement 
is  to  be  found  in  the  tapping  experiment.     Test 


MOVEMENT:    EXPERIMENTAL  101 

of  rapidity  of  movement  may  be  made  a  test 
of  fatigue  sufficient  to  bring  out  some  individ- 
ual differences  by  continuing  the  movement 
until  there  is  marked  decline  in  the  rapidity. 
By  measuring  the  amount  done  during  different 
periods  of  the  work  characteristics  of  suscepti- 
bility of  the  individual  to  fatigue  are  made  out. 
Class  experiments  can  be  made,  if  proper  con- 
ditions are  maintained.  Large  sheets  of  paper 
should  be  prepared  by  ruling  them  into  quar- 
ters ;  three  sheets  for  each  child  to  be  tested, 
the  quarters  numbered  plainly  from  1  to  12. 
Periods  of  ten  seconds  each  of  maximal  tap- 
ping are  then  called  for,  the  time  of  beginning 
and  ending  being  accurately  indicated.  Five 
seconds  can  be  allowed  between  the  end  of  one 
period  and  the  beginning  of  the  next.  The  num- 
ber of  dots  made  during  each  period  is  then 
counted.  Several  trials  on  successive  days 
will  be  necessary  to  establish  reliable  records, 
but  some  exceptional  cases  are  likely  to  be 
brought  out  by  a  single  experiment. 

Endurance  of  a  large  group  of  muscles  can 
be  tested  by  having  the  child  hold  out  the  arm 
at  a  level  with  the  shoulders  as  long  as  he  can, 
holding  a  light  weight.  Or  the  handclasp  ex- 
periment can  be  made  a  test  of  fatigue,  by 
taking  records  at  short  intervals  until  there  is 
marked  reduction  in  the  pressure. 

For  accurate  study  of  fatigue  apparatus  is 
required,  and  considerable  experience  in  con- 


102  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

ducting  experiments.  Api)aratus  can  now  be 
obtained  from  the  instrmiient  makers  that  will 
enable  one  to  test  the  fatigue  habit  of  the  in- 
dividual with  accuracy;  the  only  objection  be- 
ing, for  ordinary  use,  its  cost.  But  the  char- 
acteristic is  important,  and  it  has  played  so 
important  a  part  in  the  study  of  individual  dif- 
ferences that  it  should  be  studied  even  in  a 
preliminary  investigation. 

Individual  differences  in  power  to  improve 
in  motor  ability,  and  to  learn  new  movements 
can  be  tested  by  several  of  the  methods  that 
have  already  been  described.  For  testing  im- 
provement the  experiment  must  usually  be 
performed  on  successive  days  for  a  consider- 
able period.  The  rate  of  improvement  is  com- 
puted by  taking  the  average  improvement  of 
each  day  over  the  preceding.  The  variability 
of  improvement  should  be  computed  also,  as 
well  as  the  total  amount  of  improvement. 
And  the  records  should  be  studied  to  detect 
individual  differences  that  are  not  reducible  to 
numerical  terms. 

REFERENCES 

W.  L.  Bryan:  On  tlie  Developmont  of  Motor  Abil- 
ity. American  Jomiial  of  I'sychology,  Nov.,  1892, 
pp.  125-214. 

J.  A.  Hancock:  A  Preliminary  Study  of  Motor 
Ability  in  Children.  Pedagogical  Seminarj^  Vol.  2, 
October,  1894. 


MENTAL  TRAITS  103 

Keports  of  the  Research  Department  of  the  Chicago 
Public  Schools.  These  should  be  consulted  for  studies 
of  fatigue. 

W.  W.  Hastings:  Manual  of  Physical  Measure- 
ments.    See  for  methods  of  testing  strength. 

W.  C.  Bagley:  On  the  Correlation  of  Mental  and 
Motor  Ability  in  School  Children.  American  Journal 
of  Psychology,  1901,  Vol.  12,  193-205. 

J.  A.  Hancock :  Observation  of  Children.  Peda- 
gogical Seminary,  Vol.  8,  pp.  291-340. 


VII 

GENERAXi   DESCRIPTION   OF   MENTAL   TRAITS 

Having  examined  the  physical  nature  of  the 
child  in  some  of  its  fundamental  traits  the  at- 
tention can  now  be  turned  to  the  study  of  the 
mental  life.  Anyone  who  has  thoughtfully 
studied  the  physical  constitution  of  an  indi- 
vidual must  have  discovered  that  the  distinc- 
tion between  physical  and  mental  cannot  in 
practice  be  drawn  so  closely  as  such  a  division 
of  subject  matter  might  seem  to  indicate.  The 
body  cannot  be  understood  without  regarding 
it  as  an  expression  of  mental  processes :  so 
mental  traits  can  be  understood  only  by  con- 
sidering them  with  reference  to  those  physical 
traits  with  which  they  are  correlated. 

The  study  of  mental  individuality  has  diffi- 
culties peculiar  to  the  nature  of  the  mind;  for 
the  processes  and  states  that  are  to  be  studied 


104  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

are  not  only  complex  and  very  variable  from 
individual  to  individual  but  they  are  concealed 
from  direct  observation  and  so  must  be  studied 
indirectly.  They  must  be  known  by  the  indi- 
vidual's own  account  of  them,  and  they  must  be 
inferred  from  their  expression  in  activity. 
Especially  in  studying  the  mind  of  the  child, 
its  expression  in  the  ordinary  activities  of  life 
or  in  experimental  situations  that  greatly  re- 
semble these  normal  activities,  must  for  the 
most  part  be  depended  upon  rather  than  the 
child's  own  account  of  his  mental  processes. 

A  good  introduction  to  the  study  of  mental 
individuality  is  a  study  of  the  words  that  are 
used  in  connnon  speech  to  describe  mental 
traits.  In  all  languages  there  are  many  terms 
with  fine  shades  of  distinction  for  those  ob- 
jects or  attributes  of  objects  in  which  man 
takes  a  strong  practical  interest.  It  would  be 
expected  that  for  the  moral  and  mental  attri- 
butes of  our  fellow  beings,  characteristics  which 
our  daily  life  is  constantly  busy  in  interpreting, 
there  would  be  a  rich  vocabulary;  and  such  is 
the  case. 

So  the  study  of  mental  differences  can  begin 
with  the  study  of  the  dictionary.  All  words 
that  are  used  in  "describing  human  nature 
should  be  culled  out.  They  may  then  be  studied 
with  reference  to  their  exact  meaning,  ety- 
mologically,  and  to  their  common  usage.  Es- 
pecially  those    terms    that    seem    synonymous 


MENTAL  TRAITS  105 

or  nearly  so  should  be  scrutinized  in  order  to 
detect  shades  of  difference  in  meaning.  The 
list  that  remains  after  actual  synonyms  are 
eliminated  can  then  be  classified.  Each  word 
should  be  written  on  a  separate  card,  its  full 
meaning  written  out,  and  in  addition  some 
concrete  experiences  or  observations  that  illus- 
trate the  student's  own  understanding  of  the 
word  or  application  of  it  should  be  entered. 
The  words  are  then  to  be  arranged,  all  words 
that  signify  emotional  characteristics  for  ex- 
ample brought  together,  and  then  subdivision 
made  according  to  the  emotional  states  to 
which  they  apply;  such  as  fear,  anger,  love, 
moral  qualities  etc.  Words  describing  differ- 
ences in  sensory  qualities  and  in  intelligence 
should  similarly  be  arranged.  If  this  work  is 
well  done  the  student  will  find  himself  in  pos- 
session of  a  psychological  outline  for  the  study 
of  individuals  that  is  based  upon  the  practical 
experiences  of  the  race,  and  yet  one  that  will 
be  likely  to  agree  fairly  well  with  the  divisions 
of  scientific  psychology. 

When  the  words  have  been  studied  in  the  way 
that  is  suggested  they  can  be  used  as  guides 
for  the  study  of  individuals.  The  person  un- 
der consideration  should  be  observed  with  ref- 
erence to  each  of  the  words  in  the  list,  and 
notes  made  about  those  characteristics  which, 
in  the  judgment  of  the  observer,  the  individual 
possesses,    the    observation    upon    which    the 


106  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

judgment  is  made,  or  the  inference  is  based 
being  precisely  recorded. 

Below  is  given  a  list  of  terms  that  were  com- 
piled by  a  class  in  psychology.  It  is  not  nearly 
complete,  synonyms  have  not  been  eliminated, 
and  it  is  imperfect  in  other  ways,  but  it  will 
indicate  the  richness  of  the  English  language 
in  terms  describing  mental  differences.  Fol- 
lowing the  list  of  terms  is  a  brief  classified 
outline  that  was  used  for  a  preliminary  study 
of  the  traits  of  school  children.  More  com- 
plete descrii)tive  schemes  should  be  worked  out 
by  the  student. 


PARTIAL  LIST  OF  TERMS  IN  ENGLISH  WHICH 
DESCRIBE  MENTAL  TRAITS 

Abandoned,  abject,  abuoruial,  abrupt,  absorbed,  ac- 
complished, accommodating,  accurate,  active,  acute, 
acrimonious,  adventurous,  affable,  affected,  affection- 
ate, aesthetic,  agile,  agitated,  aggressive,  agreeable, 
airy,  alert,  altruistic,  ambitious,  angular,  angelic,  ani- 
mated, anxious,  appreciative,  apprehensive,  apathetic, 
apologetic,  ardent,  argumentative,  artful,  artificial, 
artless,  aristocratic,  ascetic,  aspiring,  assertive,  assum- 
ing, assiduous,  attentive,  attractive,  audacious,  avari- 
cious, awkwai'd, 

Babyisli,  basliful.  bad,  balky,  blatant,  bluffing,  boast- 
ful, boisterous,  bold,  boldfaced,  bombastic,  booby ish, 
bothersome,  bright,  brainy,  l)ri]liant,  bragging,  brave, 
broad,  brokenhearted.  ImlVooiiisli,  l)iioyaiit.  busy. 

Candid,  ca|)abh',  capricious,  careful,  cai'eless,  cares- 


MENTAL  TRAITS  107 

sing,  careworn,  calm,  casuistic,  cautious,  certain,  cheer- 
ful, chickenhearted,  chaste,  cheap,  cheeky,  childish, 
civil,  clean,  clear,  clownish,  clumsy,  cold,  collected, 
commanding,  common,  coarse,  comfortable,  companion- 
able, comical,  complaining,  compliant,  composed,  con- 
ceited, confessing,  confidential,  confused,  congenial, 
conscientious,  constant,  constrained,  consistent,  con- 
temptuous, contented,  contradicting,  contrary,  cool, 
courteous,  covetous,  cowardly,  crafty,  cranky,  creative, 
credulous,  crestfallen,  cross,  crotchety,  crude,  cruel, 
cunning,  curious,  cute,  cynical. 

Dainty,  dashing,  dauntless,  deceitful,  decided,  de- 
corous, deep,  deferential,  defiant,  dejected,  deliberate, 
despotic,  derisive,  destructive,  determined,  dexterous, 
diffident,  diffusive,  dignified,  diligent,  diplomatic,  di- 
rect, disagreeing,  discourteous,  discreet,  discriminat- 
ing, disdainful,  dishonest,  dishonorable,  disobedient, 
disorderly,  disputing,  disrespectful,  dissatisfied,  dis- 
tant, distracted,  distressed,  docile,  dogmatic,  domestic, 
domineering,  doublefaced,  doubting,  dowdy,  down- 
hearted, dreaming,  dressy,  droll,  dull,  dumpy,  dutiful. 

Earnest,  eccentric,  effeminate,  effusive,  egotistic,  elo- 
quent, embarrassed,  emotional,  emphatic,  emulative, 
enigmatical,  energetic,  entertaining,  envious,  equable, 
erratic,  erudite,  even,  evil,  exact,  excitable,  exemplary, 
extravagant. 

Facetious,  fair,  faithful,  faithless,  familiar,  fanci- 
ful, fastidious,  faultless,  fawning,  fearful,  fearless, 
fickle,  filthy,  flighty,  fluent,  foolhardy,  forcible,  for- 
giving, forward,  fractious,  frank,  frivolous,  friendly, 
funny,  fussy. 

Gallant,  gawky,  gay,  genial,  genteel,  genuine, 
gloomy,  gluttonous,  good,  goodhumored,  goodnatured, 
goodtempered,   goody,   gossiping,  graceful,   grasping. 


108  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

grateful,  grave,  greedy,  grouty,  growling,  grumbling, 
gushing, 

Happy,  hardhearted,  hairbrained,  harmless,  hasty, 
hateful,  haughty,  headstrong,  hearty,  heartbroken, 
heedless,  helpful,  hesitating,  highminded,  highstrung, 
highwrought,  hilarious,  hinting,  honest,  honorable, 
hopeful,  hopeless,  humble,  humiliated,  hurried,  humor- 
ous, hypocritical,  hysterical, 

Iconoclastic,  idealizing,  idle,  ignorant,  illbred,  ill- 
natured,  illogical,  imaginative,  imitative,  immature, 
immethodical,  immodest,  immoral,  immovable,  impas- 
sive, impatient,  imperious,  impertinent,  impetuous,  im- 
polite, important,  impressible,  imprudent,  impudent, 
impulsive,  impractical,  impressionable,  impure,  inac- 
tive, inane,  inattentive,  incautious,  incoherent,  incon- 
sistent, inconspicuous,  incorrigible,  indecent,  indefinite, 
independent,  indiflt'erent,  individual,  indiscreet,  indo- 
lent, indomitable,  industrious,  inert,  inexpressive,  in- 
fantile, informed,  influential,  ingenious,  ingenuous, 
initiating,  innocent,  inoffensive,  inquisitive,  insensi- 
ble, insincere,  insinuating,  insipid,  insistent,  intel- 
lectual, intelligent,  intense,  interested,  interesting, 
interrupting,  intolerant,  intractable,  introspective,  in- 
trusive, inventive,  investigating,  invincible,  irascible, 
irrational,  irresolute,  irreverent,  irritable, 

Jealous,  jeering,  jerky,  jesting,  jolly,  joyful,  joyless, 
judicious,  just. 

Keen,  kind,  knowing. 

Laconic,  ladylike,  languid,  lawdess,  lazy,  levelheaded, 
leisurely,  lewd,  liberal,  licentious,  lifeless,  light,  light- 
headed, lighthearted,  likeable,  listless,  literary,  lively 
longheaded,  loquacious,  loud,  lovable,  lowspirited, 
loyal,  ludicrous. 

Magnetic,  malevolent,  malicious,  malign,  manly,  ma- 


MENTAL  TRAITS  109 

tronly,  mature,  mean,  merciless,  merry,  methodical, 
mincing,  misbehaving,  mischievous,  miserable,  miserly, 
modest,  moody,  moping,  morbid,  morose,  motherly,  mo- 
tionless, mournful,  motor,  mouthy,  muddled,  mulish, 
musing,  musical,  mysterious. 

Naughty,  natural,  neglectful,  nervous,  nerveless, 
noiseless,  noisy,  noncommittal,  nonsensical,  normal, 
notional. 

Obdurate,  obedient,  obliging,  obscene,  obstinate,  ob- 
serving, obstreperous,  odd,  offhanded,  officious,  offish, 
old,  oldfashioned,  oldmaidish,  openhearted,  opinion- 
ated, opposing,  optimistic,  orderly,  ordinary,  original, 
ostentatious,  outspoken,  overbearing,  overwrought, 
overlearned, 

Painstaking,  palavering,  particular,  passionate,  pas- 
sive, peculiar,  penurious,  perfect,  perplexed,  perse- 
vering, persistent,  persuasive,  pessimistic,  perverse, 
petulant,  petty,  pigheaded,  pious,  plausible,  pleasant, 
playful,  plucky,  pliable,  poetic,  poised,  polite,  politic, 
pompous,  popular,  possessed,  positive,  practical,  praise- 
worthy, precautious,  precipitate,  precise,  precocious, 
prejudiced,  prepossessing,  presumptions,  pretending, 
pretentious,  prevaricating,  prim,  priggish,  problematic, 
procrastinating,  profuse,  progressive,  prolix,  promis- 
ing, prompt,  proper,  prosaic,  protesting,  provoking, 
proud,  prudent,  prudish,  punctilious,  punctual,  pure. 

Quarrelsome,  querulous,  queer,  questioning,  quick, 
quickwitted,  quiet,  quizzical, 

Eash,  rational,  reasonable,  reckless,  rebellious,  recon- 
dite, refined,  reflective,  refractory,  regular,  regretful, 
religious,  reproachful,  resentful,  reserved,  resolute,  re- 
sourceful, respectful,  responsive,  restful,  restless,  re- 
strained, reticent,  revengeful,  roguish,  romantic, 
rough,  rowdyish,  rugged,  rude, 


110  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

Had,  sagacious,  sanctimonius,  sanguine,  sardonic, 
saucy,  saving,  scatterbrained,  scheming,  scholarly, 
scrupulous,  sedate,  secretive,  sedentary,  selfconceited, 
selfcouscious,  selfcontroUed,  selfish,  selfpossessed,  self- 
reproachful,  selfrighteous,  selfsatisfied,  selfsufficient, 
selfwilled,  senseless,  sensible,  sensitive,  sententious, 
sentimental,  serene,  serious,  servile,  sexual,  shallow, 
shamefaced,  sharp,  sharpwitted,  shiftless,  shifty,  shil- 
ly-shallying, shoddy,  showy,  shrewd,  shrinking,  shy, 
sideling,  silent,  silly,  simple,  simulating,  sincere, 
slangy,  sluggish,  slovenly,  slick,  slippery,  slothful, 
smart,  smirking,  smiling,  snappish,  snarling,  sneaky, 
sneering,  snickering,  snuffling,  sober,  soberminded,  so- 
ciable, social,  soft,  softhearted,  solemn,  solitary,  so- 
phisticated, sordid,  sorrowful,  soulless,  sour,  spas- 
modic, spirited,  spiritless,  spiritual,  spiteful,  spon- 
taneous, sportive,  spoiled,  sponging,  sprightly,  staunch, 
stagey,  steady,  stealthy,  stiff,  still,  stingy,  stirring, 
stolid,  stormy,  straightforward,  strange,  strenuous, 
stubborn,  studious,  stupid,  sturdy,  submissive,  sub- 
servient, subtle,  suffering,  suggestible,  sullen,  super, 
ficial,  surly,  superior,  suspicious,  sulky,  sullen,  swag- 
gering, swearing,  sweet,  sympathetic,  systematic. 

Taciturn,  tactful,  talebearing,  talented,  talkative, 
tantalizing,  tardy,  tasteful,  tasteless,  tattling,  teach- 
able, teasing,  tedious,  tempestuous,  tenacious,  tender, 
tenderhearted,  testy,  thankful,  thankless,  thiekskulled. 
thievish,  thinking,  thoughtful,  thoughtless,  thrifty, 
tidy,  timeserving,  tired,  tireless,  torpid,  touchy,  tougli^ 
tractable,  tranquil,  treacherous,  tremulous,  tricky, 
trim,  trifling,  troublesome,  trustful,  trusty,  truthful, 
tumultuous,  tyrannical, 

Unaccountable,  unaffected,  unassuming,  unbalanced, 
unbelieving,   unbending,   uncharitable,   unchaste,   un- 


MENTAL  TRAITS  111 

civil,  unclean,  uncomfortable,  unconcerned,  uncon- 
scious, undaunted,  underhanded,  uneasy,  uneven, 
unfaithful,  unfair,  unfeeling,  unforgiving,  unfriendly, 
ungainly,  ungovernable,  ungrateful,  ungraceful,  un- 
happy, uninterested,  unkind,  unkempt,  unpleasant, 
unprincipled,  unreasonable,  unreliable,  unscrupulous, 
unselfish,  unsettled,  unsociable,  unthinking,  untruth- 
ful, unwholesome,  unwilling,  unworthy,  upright,  up- 
roarious, urbane,  useful, 

Vacant,  vain,  valiant,  variable,  vehement,  versatile, 
vicious,  vigorous,  vindictive,  violent,  virtuous,  viva- 
cious, voluptuous,  voracious,  vulgar. 

Waggish,  wanton,  warmhearted,  wary,  wasteful, 
waspish,  weak,  wellbred,  wellmeaning,  wellspoken, 
whimsical,  whimpering,  whining,  wicked,  wild,  willful, 
willing,  winsome,  wistful,  wise,  witty,  wideawake, 
wishywashy,  worthless,  wretched,  witless,  witty,  woe- 
begone, worrying,  worthy. 

Zealous. 

OUTLINE  FOR  STUDY  OF  AN  INDIVIDUAL 

This  blank  calls  for  a  description  of  a  child  largely  in 
terms  of  adjectives.  Underline  all  terms  describing  qualities 
that  the  child  under  observation  distinctly  possesses.  Under- 
line twice  if  you  think  the  quality  is  present  in  a  striking  or 
unusual  degree. 

Name  of  child Sex Grade Age 

Nationality 

Attendance:  regular,  irregular?  Home  conditions:  good, 
poor  ?  Health :  good,  poor  ?  Muscular  strength  :  good,  poor  ? 
Is  the  child  tall  or  short  (for  his  age),  stout  or  slender,  fleshy 
or  thin,  good  looking  or  plain  looking,  well  formed  or  poorly 
formed  ? 

Character. —  Is  the  child  good-natured,  agreeable,  well-dis- 
posed, contented,  too  good-natured,  over-social,  ill-natured,  ill- 


112  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

disposed,  disagreeable,  sensitive,  revengeful,  jealous,  complain- 
ing? Generous,  obliging,  selfish,  disobliging?  Affectionate, 
sympathetic,  lacking  in  affection,  cruel,  a  tease,  a  bully,  over- 
affectionate?  Obedient,  disobedient,  balky,  willful,  "tough," 
over-docile?  Honest,  frank,  truthful,  trustworthy,  self-respect- 
ing, dishonest,  sly,  untruthful,  without  self-respect,  mischievous, 
over-conscientious?  Modest,  confident,  conceited,  bold,  proud, 
bragging,  timid,  bashful,  babyish,  self-depreciating?  Earnest, 
ambitious,  serious,  cheerful,  frivolous,  "  funny,"  over-talkative, 
a  giggler,  sad,  over-anxious?  Energetic,  calm,  self-control  led, 
quiet,  nervous,  excitable,  emotional,  lacking  in  self-control, 
restless,  lifeless,  lacking  energy?  Refined,  coarse,  neat,  un- 
tidy, over-fastidious,  polite,  impolite? 

Mental  Work. —  Is  the  child  industrious,  lazy,  patient,  im- 
patient, persistent,  easily  discouraged,  attentive,  inattentive,  in- 
tense, listless?  Quick,  accurate,  thoughtful,  careful,  slow, 
inaccurate,  thoughtless,  careless?  Original,  a  memorizer,  re- 
tentive, forgetful? 

Manual  Work  (e.  g.  drawing)  —  Is  the  child  accurate,  skill- 
ful, quick,  neat,  quiet,  careful,  inaccurate,  awkward,  slow,  un- 
tidy, noisy,  careless?  Are  the  child's  larger  movements  (as 
in  walking)  quick,  graceful,  slow,  awkward? 

Class  Standing. —  Arithmetic:  good,  poor?  Language: 
good,  poor?  Geography:  good,  poor?  Nature  Study:  good, 
poor?  History:  good,  poor?  Reading:  good,  poor?  Music: 
good,  poor?     Drawing:  good,  poor? 

Play. —  Is  the  child  rough,  active,  quiet,  retiring,  lifeless? 

Describe  in  detail  (on  the  back  of  the  blank)  any  marked 
peculiarity  of  the  child;  any  unusual  ability  or  disability,  men- 
tal or  physical.  Specify  any  bad  habit.  Remark  upon  any- 
thing else  of  interest  in  regard  to  the  child. 


.Teacher. 


Date. 


SIATEHORM/ilSCioOL, 


EMOTIONAL  LIFE  113 

VIII 

THE   EMOTIONAL  LIFE 

The  study  of  the  emotional  life  is  probably 
the  most  important  chapter  in  the  study  of 
individuality,  for  not  only  are  the  emotions 
the  foundation  of  all  the  practical  life,  but  they 
enter  into  the  abstract  intellectual  functions  in 
various  ways.  Failure  to  understand  the  emo- 
tional life  of  those  whom  they  teach  is  probably 
the  cause  of  more  bad  pedagogy  on  the  part  of 
teachers  than  any  other  cause,  for  although  the 
emotions  are  so  fundamental  a  part  of  the  life 
they  are  the  very  part,  the  full  meaning  of 
which  it  is  least  easy  to  communicate,  and  which 
is  most  often  purposely  hidden  from  the  ob- 
server. 

To  understand  the  emotional  life  of  a  child, 
observation  of  conduct  as  a  series  of  connected 
acts  is  required.  Many  characteristics,  inter- 
ests, habits,  and  deficiencies  that  may  seem  per- ' 
plexing  when  considered  in  themselves  become 
plain  when  the  dominating  emotions  are  under- 
stood. Especially  such  primary  emotions  as 
fear,  anger,  self-love,  sexual-emotion,  sorrow, 
anxiety,  need  careful  scrutiny  —  as  well  as  the 
more  complex  or  higher  emotions  such  as  those 
that  are  shown  in  the  social,  religious,  moral, 
and  aesthetic  life.  As  to  methods  of  studying 
emotion  in  the  child,  and  the  extent  to  which 


U4  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

the  child  should  be  made  a  participant  in  the 
investigation  of  his  own  emotional  life,  there 
will  probably  be  differences  of  opinion.  The 
importance  of  the  subject,  however,  and  the 
great  need  of  more  light  upon  the  emotional 
nature  of  the  child  demand  that  serious  at- 
tention be  given  the  subject,  especially  those 
phases  of  it  that  concern  the  teacher.  The  con- 
duct of  the  child  should  be  observed  in  order 
to  detect  the  prevailing  moods  and  emotions. 
Information  that  can  be  obtained  in  the  school- 
room should  be  supplemented  by  accounts  ob- 
tained from  the  homo,  and  in  some  cases,  from 
companions  of  the  child.  To  what  extent  the 
child  should  be  made  to  report  about  his  own 
emotions  will  depend  upon  the  relations  be- 
tween investigator  and  child  and  the  means  he 
may  have  of  turning  the  information  he  may 
gain  to  the  service  of  the  child.  But  it  should 
be  understood  by  all  teachers  that  the  school 
does  not  as  a  rule  deal  with  the  child  in  his 
most  individual  aspects,  and  that  the  very  least 
one  can  do  for  the  nine-tenths  of  the  child 
that  we  do  not  teach  is  to  understand  it. 

Fear.  Fear,  and  its  derivatives,  anxiety 
and  worry,  should  be  carefully  studied,  for  they 
may  be  the  dominating  moods  in  the  life  of  the 
child.  It  should  be  known  whether  a  child  is 
naturally  confident  and  fearless  or  timid; 
whether  there  are  particular  fears  or  aversions 


EMOTIONAL  LIFE  U5 

that  influence  conduct.  Information  should  be 
obtained  from  the  home  about  fears  in  infancy 
and  early  childhood ;  whether  the  child  has  ever 
evinced  exceptional  or  morbid  fears ;  whether 
he  has  ever  suffered  from  the  effects  of  fright 
or  shock  of  any  kind.  Has  there  been  great 
fear  of  the  dark  or  of  imaginary  animals  ?  Are 
there  any  causes  of  worry  or  anxiety?  In  ex- 
ceptional cases  insight  into  the  child's  fears 
will  be  the  most  important  information  that  can 
be  obtained  about  him,  and  in  all  cases  an  in- 
vestigation of  this  part  of  the  emotional  life 
is  essential. 

Further  information  about  fear  can  be  ob- 
tained by  questioning  a  child  about  his  attitude 
toward  objects  that  are  commonly  feared. 
Written  exercises  on  the  subject  are  allowable. 
A  list  of  common  objects  of  fear  can  be  written 
and  children  asked  to  write  about  those  they 
think  one  would  be  most  afraid  of  and  to  tell 
why.  The  direct  question  as  to  what  the  child 
is  himself  most  afraid  of,  and  why,  can  be  used, 
and  he  may  be  asked  to  tell  in  detail  about 
some  time  when  he  was  badly  frightened.  To 
detect  subtle  strains  of  fear  and  worry  that  lurk 
in  the  mind  is  not  always  easy,  and  the  method 
cannot  be  reduced  to  rule.  It  should  be  kept 
in  mind,  however,  that  in  any  case  of  unsatis- 
factory conduct  in  a  constitutionally  timid 
child,  even  in  conduct  not  apparently  directly 


116  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

connected  with  the  emotion  of  fear,  fears  and 
aversions  due  to  them  may  be  the  underlying 
causes. 

Anger.  Anger  in  one  or  another  of  its 
forms  may  also  be  a  dominating  emotion 
throughout  life.  As  irritability,  jealousy,  re- 
sentment, tendency  to  chronic  fault-finding  it 
may  permeate  all  the  conduct.  The  character- 
istics of  the  child's  anger  reactions  should  be 
studied.  Is  anger  easily  aroused,  intense  or 
feeble,  quick  to  subside  or  long  continued? 
What  causes  are  most  likely  to  excite  it?  What 
are  its  characteristic  expressions?  The  child 
should  be  studied  with  regard  to  such  descrip- 
tive terms  as:  Good-natured,  agreeable, 
well-disposed,  contented,  too  good-natured, 
ill-natured,  ill-disposed,  disagreeable,  irritable, 
sensitive,  revengeful,  jealous,  complaining, 
quick-tempered,  sullen,  cruel. 

Information  about  the  qualities  of  the  child's 
anger  reactions  can  be  obtained  through  his 
written  opinions  about  situations  in  which 
teasing,  injustice,  accidental  injury,  perverse- 
ness  of  inanimate  things,  are  involved.  A  list 
of  common  causes  of  anger  can  be  written  and 
the  child  requested  to  write  about  those  he 
thinks  would  make  one  most  angry  and  to 
tell  why.  Such  themes  as  the  following  can  be 
discussed — *'  When  someone  purposely  breaks 
your  new  sled;  "  *'  When  you  are  in  a  great 
hurry  and  find  that  your  brother  has  hidden 


EMOTIONAL  LIFE  117 

your  hat;  "  **  When  your  best  friend  tells  tales 
about  you  that  are  not  true;  "  and  the  like. 
Questions  about  the  child's  experiences  with 
anger  and  its  derivatives,  his  opinions  about 
their  effect  on  his  conduct,  his  effort  to  over- 
come them,  can  be  asked  about  under  proper 
conditions. 

The  child's  habitual  emotional  tone,  with  re- 
gard to  elation  or  depression,  should  be  inves- 
tigated. There  are  normal  variations  within 
wide  limits,  and  pathological  departures  in  both 
directions.  It  should  be  ascertained  whether 
the  child  is  habitually  cheerful,  or  sad,  whether 
he  is  easily  depressed,  feels  keenly  slights, 
losses,  and  reproofs.  Is  the  child  easily  moved 
to  laughter,  light-hearted,  sunshiny,  lacking  in 
seriousness?  Is  he  changeable  or  moody  I  In 
general  is  the  child  calm,  apathetic,  self-con- 
trolled, excitable,  lacking  in  self-control? 

When  the  basic  feelings  such  as  have  been 
suggested  have  been  investigated  the  more  com- 
plex attitudes  and  interests  which  they  under- 
lie can  be  studied.  Broadly  speaking,  the  emo- 
tional life  can  be  divided  for  study  into  moral, 
religious,  social,  and  Eesthetic  emotions.  These 
are  not  to  be  regarded,  however,  as  entirely  sep- 
arate compartments  of  the  mental  life,  but  as 
the  accompaniments  of  reactions  of  the  organ- 
ism in  situations  that  overrun  these  philosophic 
boundaries  in  many  ways.  There  is  as  yet  no 
complete  psychological  analysis  of  the  emotions, 


118  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

and  therefore  no  completely  systematic  and 
scientific  way  of  examining  the  emotional  traits 
of  individuals. 

The  moral  life.  In  noticing  the  moral  traits 
of  a  child  some  of  the  characteristics  that  have 
been  observed  before  must  again  be  considered, 
but  with  special  endeavor  to  see  the  effect  of 
these  characteristics  upon  conduct  regarded  as 
a  social  relation.  The  common  descriptive 
terms  that  relate  to  moral  conduct  should  be 
brought  together  and  the  child  studied  with 
reference  to  them.  Such  terms  as  the  follow- 
ing should  be  considered: 

Agreeable,  well-disposed,  contented,  too  good-na- 
tured, over-social,  ill-natured,  ill-disposed,  disagreea- 
ble, irritable,  sensitive,  revengeful,  jealous,  complain- 
ing, malicious,  generous,  selfish,  obliging,  disobliging, 
affectionate,  obedient,  yielding,  obstinate,  disobedient, 
balky,  sympathetic,  lacking  in  affection,  cruel,  teasing, 
bullying,  over-affectionate,  secretive,  untruthful,  will- 
ful, tough,  over-docile,  dishonest,  sly,  hypocritical, 
deceiving,  without  self-respect,  mischievous,  over-con- 
scientious, modest,  haughty,  indifferent,  blase,  incjuisi- 
tive,  serious,  cheerful,  lazy,  frivolous,  orderly,  refined, 
coarse,  neat,  disorderly,  untidy,  over-fastidious,  polite, 
impolite,  innocent,  pure-minded,  obscene,  vulgar. 

Such  a  description  of  morality,  it  is  obvious, 
is  not  based  upon  a  strictly  philosophical  con- 
ception of  morality ;  many  of  the  qualities  that 
are  thus  described  can  be  regarded  also  as 
aBsthetic,  or  morally  indifferent,  from  the  sub- 


EMOTIONAL  LIFE  119 

jective  standpoint,  but  they  describe  conduct 
with  reference  to  its  agreeableness  to  the  ob- 
server.    Many  other  terms  could  be  included. 

Many  test  questions  and  problems  have  been 
used  in  studying  the  moral  life  of  children; 
some  of  them  suited  well  to  the  study  of  cer- 
tain individual  differences.  In  general,  how- 
ever, a  child's  written  opinion  about  moral  ques- 
tions shows  degree  of  intellectual  development 
rather  than  moral  qualities  of  feeling  and  habit. 
Some  of  the  questions  that  have  been  used  are 
given  below.  The  results  that  have  been  ob- 
tained by  writers  who  have  used  them  can  to 
a  certain  extent  be  used  for  comparison  in 
studying  the  moral  development  of  children. 
Assigned  as  a  series  of  compositions  they  will 
be  likely  to  give  considerable  insight  into 
the  moral  development  of  children,  and  will 
bring  to  light  some  peculiar  and  exceptional 
cases.  In  order  to  obtain  good  reactions  from 
children  by  this  method  considerable  interest 
must  be  roused  in  a  general  way  in  advance 
without  suggesting  answers  to  questions. 
Otherwise  answers  are  likely  to  be  brief  and 
superficial. 

"  Mary,  six  years  old,  had  a  box  of  paints  for 
her  birthday.  The  next  day,  when  her  mother 
was  down  town,  Mary  painted  some  of  the  best 
parlor  chairs.  When  her  mother  came  home, 
Mary  ran  to  her  and  said,  *  0,  mother,  come  and 
see  how  pretty  I  have  made  the  chairs  look.' 


120  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

The  chairs  were  spoiled.  If  you  had  been 
Mary's  mother  what  would  you  have  done? 
Why?  " 

"  Mary's  parents  told  her  not  to  sit  on  the 
floor.  One  day  the  teacher  told  her  to  sit  on 
the  floor  in  one  of  the  kindergarten  games. 
Whom  ought  Mary  to  have  obeyed,  and  why?  " 

"  Hattie  Smith's  papa  was  very  rich  and 
bought  her  many  beautiful  things.  When  Hat- 
tie  was  nine  years  old  she  went  to  live  with  her 
Aunt  Mary  who  was  very  kind  to  poor  people. 
One  day  when  Hattie  was  at  school  her  aunt 
gave  her  old  hood  to  a  poor  girl.  When  Hattie 
came  home  her  aunt  told  her  what  she  had  done, 
and  Hattie  said,  '  Why  did  you  give  it  away? 
It  is  my  hood.  My  papa  bought  it  for  me.' 
Her  aunt  told  her  that  her  papa  had  sent  her  a 
nice  new  one.  But  the  next  day  at  school  Hattie 
sat  next  to  the  poor  girl  who  wore  her  hood  — 
Finish  the  story  and  make  it  end  as  it  should." 

"  Tell  about  some  punishment  you  have  re- 
ceived that  you  think  was  unjust.  Why  was  it 
unjust?  Tell  about  a  punishment  you  have  re- 
ceived that  you  think  was  just.  Why  was  it 
just?  " 

"  James'  father  gave  him  a  dog;  but  James 
often  forgot  to  feed  it,  and  the  dog  cried  at  the 
door.  Then  James'  father  took  the  dog  and 
gave  it  to  a  kind  little  girl  who  lived  down  the 
street.  Who  had  the  best  right  to  the  dog;  the 
father,  James,  or  the  little  girl?     Why?  " 


EMOTIONAL  LIFE  121 

*  *  One  day  the  teacher  left  the  room,  and  while 
she  was  gone  several  children  in  the  room  began 
to  make  a  noise.  The  teacher  heard  the  noise 
as  she  was  coming  back,  but  she  did  not  know 
what  children  were  out  of  order.  As  none  of 
the  class  would  tell,  she  kept  the  whole  class 
after  school.  Was  the  punishment  just  or  un- 
just?    Why?  " 

'^  Harry  stole  a  dollar  from  his  mother's 
purse.  Some  of  it  he  spent  for  marbles,  and 
with  the  rest  he  bought  a  knife.  The  next  day 
he  felt  bad  about  it  and  told  his  mother  what  he 
had  done.  If  you  had  been  his  mother  what 
would  you  have  done  ?  ' ' 

"  Ella  stole  a  dollar.  Mary  asked  her  where 
she  got  it.  Ella  said  she  would  tell  if  she  would 
promise  to  keep  it  a  secret.  Mary  promised; 
so  Ella  told  her  that  she  took  it  out  of  her  moth- 
er's  purse.  Ought  Mary  to  have  told  Ella's 
mother?    Why?     Or  why  not?  " 

''  Name  three  worst  things  to  do.  Why  are 
they  bad?  Name  three  best  things  to  do.  Why 
are  they  good?  " 

Religious  emotions  and  interests.  In  the 
young  child  the  religious  ideas  reflect  for  the 
most  part  the  environment  of  the  child  with 
but  little  change.  Individual  differences  are 
the  result  of  differences  in  teaching.  If  how- 
ever the  deeper  roots  of  natural  religion  are 
investigated,  it  will  be  found  that  there  are 
differences  in  capacity  for  emotional  attitudes 


122  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

toward  the  unseen  world,  and  in  the  imaginative 
expression  of  these  feelings.  In  studying  the 
religious  feeling  of  a  young  child  one  must 
study  some  of  his  secular  interests  at  the  same 
time;  such  as  his  interest  in  Santa  Claus,  the 
characters  of  heroic  tales,  fairies,  and  the  myth- 
ological persons  that  represent  the  abstract  and 
the  general.  The  method  of  the  school  compo- 
sition has  been  used  to  test  the  religious  life 
of  a  child  but  it  usually  examines  intellectual 
qualities  rather  than  qualities  of  feeling.  How- 
ever, where  there  is  imaginative  interest  there 
is  emotional  attitude  and  something  can  be 
learned  from  the  child's  description  of  God,  and 
his  ideas  of  the  soul  and  the  future  life,  if  the 
questions  are  put  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  him 
think  rather  than  repeat  what  he  has  heard. 

Two  traits  of  the  religion  life  that  have  deep 
roots  in  fundamental  emotions  should  be  consid-. 
ered  with  reference  to  individual  differences. 
The  first  is  the  belief  in  the  spirituality  of 
things,  which  is  a  strong  characteristic  of  child- 
hood but  differs  greatly  among  individuals. 
The  second  is  the  temperamental  tendency 
toward  or  away  from  optimism  about  the  good 
will  of  things  in  general  toward  the  individual. 
In  connection  with  the  first  topic  the  child's 
life  of  imagination,  his  belief  in  fairies,  unseen 
worlds,  spirits,  mental  traits  in  inanimate  ob- 
jects, must  be  studied.  With  regard  to  the 
second  topic  the  child's  sense  of  himself  as  an 


EMOTIONAL  LIFE  123 

individual  must  be  studied.  Already  the  in- 
vestigation of  fear  and  other  fundamental 
emotions  and  moods  will  have  thrown  some 
light  upon  the  conditions  underlying  differ- 
ences in  the  capacity  for  faith.  Individuals 
differ  in  their  sense  of  isolation  as  an  indi- 
vidual ;  their  feeling  of  the  presence  of  spiritual 
companionship;  in  the  sense  of  security  as  an 
individual  in  the  midst  of  larger  forces.  Such 
differences  determine  differences  in  capacity 
for  religious  sentiment,  feeling  of  dependence, 
and  faith.  This  is  an  obscure  region  in  the 
personality  of  the  child,  and  such  suggestions 
as  these  about  the  psychology  of  the  religious 
life  are  about  all  that  can  be  given  in  the  way 
of  direction*  for  a  preliminary  study  of  the 
religion  life  of  the  child. 

Esthetic  feelings  and  interests.  In  study- 
ing the  aesthetic  life  of  the  young  child  a  some- 
what broader  conception  of  aesthetic  feeling 
than  is  commonly  adopted  for  the  purposes  of 
philosophic  studies  of  the  beautiful  must  be 
used.  The  lovable,  the  beautiful,  and  the  use- 
ful are  confused  in  the  child's  mind,  and  there- 
fore examination  for  differences  in  the  aesthetic 
sensibilities  must  include  the  study  of  a  wide 
range  of  the  child's  interests,  in  which  the  idea 
of  attractiveness  is  dominant.  Neatness  and 
fastidiousness  with  regard  to  dress  should  be 
noticed  as  a  sign  of  a  sense  for  the  aesthetic. 
The  child's  interests  in  flowers,  scenery,  ani- 


124  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

mals,  should  be  recorded.  Musical  interests 
and  appreciation  of  musical  values,  interests  in 
color,  habits  of  order,  appreciation  of  symmetry 
and  form,  must  be  taken  into  account.  Re- 
sponse to  rhythm,  preferences  among  rhyth- 
mical forms  and  tempos,  are  also  indications 
of  the  aesthetic  sense  of  the  child. 

Esthetic  feeling  can  be  put  to  test  in  several 
ways.  The  simplest  experiments  are  made 
upon  color  preferences.  Small  squares  of  vari- 
ous colors,  in  paper,  can  be  used  as  test  ma- 
terial. The  series  should  contain  various  tints, 
shades,  and  tones.  For  a  detailed  account  of 
the  method  of  making  these  experiments  one 
may  consult  Seashore's  ''  Elementary  Experi- 
ments in  Psychology,"  Chapter  XV.  Appre- 
ciation of  form  may  be  tested  by  asking  for  the 
child's  preferences  among  geometrical  forms 
and  irregular  figures  carefully  drawn  upon 
cardboard.  More  complex  stimuli  can  be  used, 
such  as  a  series  of  pictures,  including  portraits, 
landscapes,  and  color  schemes.  The  composi- 
tion method  can  be  used  to  advantage:  the 
child  can  be  asked  to  write  his  preferences  for 
colors,  pictures,  music,  poetry,  and  to  state  the 
reasons  for  his  preferences.  Such  questions 
as  "  What  is  the  best  song  you  know?  " 
"  AVhat  is  the  prettiest  color  for  a  dress?  " 
can  be  asked. 

The  child  should  be  studied  with  reference  to 
all  those  descriptive  terms  that  apply  to  the 


EMOTIONAL  LIFE  125 

assthetic  life  in  any  way:  such  as  neat,  fastidi- 
ous, orderly,  exact,  musical,  artistic,  and  the 
like. 

Social  feelings  and  interests.  These  terms 
cover  a  wide  range  of  activities  of  the  child, 
some  of  which  have  already  been  investigated ; 
for  in  a  sense  all  conduct  of  the  individual  is 
social  in  its  implications.  More  particularly  it 
is  desired  to  know  about  the  child's  attitudes 
toward  people.  In  general  is  it  one  of  con- 
fidence, or  fear  and  shyness?  Especially  in 
the  presence  of  strangers  is  the  child  bold,  re- 
served, timid?  Does  he  associate  freely  with 
other  children,  or  is  he  in  any  way  anti-social 
or  solitary?  Is  he  liked  by  his  companions? 
Is  he  inclined  toward  over-sociability,  or  too 
great  dependence  upon  companionship  for  his 
interests  and  happiness?  Is  he  envious  or 
jealous  of  his  fellows?  Is  his  competitive 
spirit  keen  or  weak?  What  is  his  attitude 
when  he  is  beaten  in  games  or  surpassed  in 
school  work? 

The  method  of  school  composition  can  be  used 
in  ascertaining  the  child's  attitude  toward  so- 
cial games,  his  preferences  among  these  games, 
his  ideas  about  chums  and  the  like.  All  descrip- 
tive terms  that  apply  to  such  social  traits  and 
activities  as  have  been  mentioned  should  be 
carefully  examined,  and  the  traits  of  the  chil- 
dren under  observation  studied  with  reference 
to  them. 


126  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

Many  other  aspects  and  details  of  the  emo- 
tioual  life  could  be  made  the  subject  of  observa- 
tion and  experiment,  and  a  much  greater  degree 
of  psychological  analysis  could  be  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  problem;  but  such  lines  of  in- 
vestigation as  have  been  suggested  will  show 
the  various  methods  of  observing  the  emo- 
tional life,  and  will  also  indicate  the  complexity 
and  the  difficulty  of  the  problem.  Emotional 
qualities  of  the  individual  must  be  studied  with 
reference  to  physical  condition,  to  heredity,  and 
to  environment.  Especially  in  cases  in  which 
there  are  marked  moral  defects  or  great  eccen- 
tricity in  the  fundamental  emotions  the  need 
of  far-reaching  examination  of  the  physical  life 
of  the  child  must  be  recognized :  for  it  is  in  the 
interest  both  of  the  child  and  of  society  that 
these  conditions  be  understood  as  early  in  the 
child's  life  as  possible.  Many  children,  obvi- 
ously defective,  pass  through  the  schools  at- 
tracting little  serious  attention  to  their  condi- 
tion if  they  happen  to  have  normal  capacity 
for  doing  the  work  of  the  school  —  and  it 
should  be  remembered  that  most  of  our  insane 
and  criminals  have  passed  through  the  public 
schools,  and  also  that  their  defects  have  had 
their  origin  largely  in  aberrations  of  the  emo- 
tional life,  and  the  physical  conditions  that  are 
correlated  with  them. 


EMOTIONAL  LIFE  127 


REFERENCES 


Many  books  and  articles  could  be  given  as  refer- 
ences in  connection  with  the  subject  of  study  of  the 
emotions.  If  one  wishes  to  read  the  general  psychol- 
ogy of  the  subject,  Ribot's  Psychology  of  the  Emo- 
tions is  probably  still  the  best  introduction.  James' 
Principles  of  Psychology  can  be  consulted.  Articles 
by  G.  S.  Hall  in  the  American  Journal  of  Psychology 
should  be  read,  especially  A  Study  of  Fears,  1897,  pp. 
147-249,  and  A  Study  of  Anger,  1899,  pp.  516-590. 
For  references  to  many  articles  on  topics  connected 
with  this  chapter  the  Bibliographies  of  Child  Study 
by  L.  N.  "Wilson  should  be  consulted.  Barnes'  Stud- 
ies in  Education  contains  most  of  the  articles  from 
which  the  composition  methods  of  studying  moral 
ideas  are  taken.  A  few  scattered  references  can  be 
given  to  articles  that  will  show  how  this  method  has 
been  applied. 

E.  H.  Darrah:  Children's  Attitude  Toward  Law. 
Studies  in  Education,  213-216. 

E.  Barnes:  Punishment  as  Seen  by  Children. 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  III,  235-245. 

E.  Barnes:  Theological  Life  of  a  California  Child. 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  II,  442-448. 

F.  B.  Gates:  Musical  Interests  of  Children.  Jour- 
nal of  Pedagogy,  1898,  265-284. 

W.  S.  Monroe:  Development  of  the  Social  Con- 
sciousness of  Children.  Proceedings  of  the  N.  E.  A., 
1898,  921-928. 


128  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

IX 

INTERESTS   AND   INSTINCTS 

In  adult  society  individuals  obviously  differ 
greatly  in  their  interests.  In  part  this  seems 
to  be  the  result  of  environment  or  circumstance. 
But  there  appear  to  be  also  inherited  or  innate 
differences  in  adaptability  of  the  organism  to 
particular  tasks  or  habits.  These  deep-seated 
tendencies  act  selectively  upon  the  environment, 
and  the  environment  reacts  in  a  way  to  confirm 
and  modify  the  original  differences. 

The  free  activity  of  the  child  must  be  studied 
in  order  to  detect  those  fundamental  traits  of 
interest  that  will  later  determine  his  practical 
conduct.  The  routme  work  of  the  school,  which 
tends  to  conventionalize  and  make  children 
similar  to  each  other,  conceals  rather  than  dis- 
closes the  traits  that  it  is  desirable  to  observe. 

The  greatest  of  the  interests  of  childhood  is 
play,  and  in  a  sense  it  includes  all  others.  One 
must  avoid  the  error  of  thinking  that  the  play 
interests  often  give  definite  indications  of  per- 
manent life-interests  or  abilities.  It  is  the 
more  general  characteristic  of  play  that  is  to 
be  observed;  the  actual  interests  of  the  child 
often  change  with  the  season  or  the  neighbor- 
hood. An  account  of  the  child's  play  interests 
obtained  from  the  home  will  sometimes  be 
illuminating.     In  general  are  his  play  interests 


INTERESTS  AND  INSTINCTS  129 

merely  active  or  are  they  constructive?  Is 
the  free  activity  of  the  child  relatively  great  or 
small?  Are  there  strong  play  tendencies  to- 
ward the  aesthetic,  the  informational,  or  experi- 
mental? Is  there  interest  in  animals,  in  nature, 
in  indoor  life?  Marked  interests  of  any  kind 
that  are  different  from  the  ordinary  should  be 
closely  observed  and  recorded.  Imaginative 
fertility  in  games  should  be  noticed,  and  capac- 
ity for  leadership.  Written  accounts  by  chil- 
dren of  their  preferences  for  games  may  throw 
light  upon  their  individual  differences.  The 
child  should  be  asked  to  name  the  best  outdoor 
games,  the  best  indoor  games,  and  to  give  rea- 
sons for  each  choice. 

Interest  in  sex  is  one  of  the  most  important 
topics  in  considering  the  instincts  of  the  child, 
though  less  so  in  younger  children  than  in  the 
case  of  those  approaching  adolescence.  Atti- 
tudes toward  those  of  the  opposite  sex  should 
be  observed  and  especially  precocity  or  unusual 
shyness  or  aversion  should  be  noticed.  Senti- 
mentality, especially  on  the  part  of  boys,  should 
be  studied  with  reference  to  other  traits  of 
character.  The  whole  subject  of  the  develop- 
ment of  sexual  feeling,  though  so  important  for 
the  understanding  of  an  individual,  belongs 
rather  to  the  expert  than  to  the  preliminary 
examination.  It  should  be  understood,  how- 
ever, that  the  subject  is  of  central  importance, 
ll:at  no  study  of  an  individual  is  complete  with- 


130  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

out  full  knowledge  of  the  subject,  that  eccen- 
tricities and  aberrations  in  the  sexual  sphere 
are  causes  of  much  unsatisfactory  conduct  on 
the  part  of  children  that  usually  remains  un- 
explained, or  is  attributed  to  the  wrong  cause. 

Property  interest.  This  is  a  fundamental 
interest  in  the  race,  and  its  early  manifesta- 
tions in  the  child  should  be  observed.  What  is 
the  child's  reaction  when  his  possessions  are 
lost  or  taken?  Does  he  show  a  strong  sense 
of  values?  Is  he  generous  or  selfish  with  his 
possessions?  Is  he  careless  of  them,  or  does  he 
tend  toward  the  opposite  habit?  Are  there  any 
indications  of  the  hoarding  and  hiding  habits 
of  the  miser?  Is  the  child  interested  in  earning 
and  in  saving  money? 

Interest  in  collecting.  Although  interest  in 
making  collections  is  almost  universal  among 
children,  and  the  kind  of  object  that  is  collected 
at  any  time  is  largely  determined  by  imitation, 
attitudes  of  children  toward  collecting  vary 
much,  and  in  his  collecting  interests  the  child 
evinces  characteristics  that  will  be  likely  to  be 
permanent.  Cases  of  unusually  enthusiastic 
collecting  should  be  noticed  and  also  cases  of 
ajiathy  in  the  midst  of  a  collecting  epidemic. 
Natural  propensities  toward  system  and  order, 
and  perception  of  classification,  can  be  seen  in 
the  child's  disposition  of  his  collections.  A 
written  exercise  on  the  subject  of  collections 
can  be  assigned.     The  children  should  be  asked 


INTERESTS  AND  INSTINCTS  131 

to  name  all  the  collections  they  have  ever  made; 
which  they  have  found  the  most  interesting, 
and  why;  what  has  been  done  with  them,  why 
they  were  begun,  and  how  far  developed. 

Migration  interests.  Another  interest  that  is 
manifested  early  in  life,  and  which  has  a  bear- 
ing upon  permanent  characteristics  of  the  indi- 
vidual is  the  interest  in  wandering;  related,  it 
is  believed,  to  the  migratory  instincts  of  the 
race.  Is  the  child  a  stay-at-home  child,  or  does 
he  like  to  wander  to  new  scenes?  Does  he  take 
interest  in  a  wide  or  narrow  environment?  Is 
he  fond  of  exploration,  discovery,  excitement 
and  danger?  Does  he  show  any  morbid  tenden- 
cies toward  fear  of  the  new  or  unknown? 
Something  can  be  discovered  about  the  child's 
migratory  instincts  by  his  reactions  to  such 
questions  as :  Where  would  you  like  best  to 
spend  a  vacation?  Where  would  you  like  best 
to  travel?  Why?  How  long  would  you  like  to 
live  at  home?  When  you  leave  home  where 
would  you  like  to  go  to  live?  —  and  other  similar 
questions. 

Ambitions.  The  child's  actual  ambitions  at  an 
early  stage  may  be  but  a  reflection  of  environ- 
ment, or  expression  of  a  stage  of  development, 
and  yet  they  are,  to  a  certain  extent,  prognostic- 
in  some  of  their  characteristics.  Ambitions  that 
are  expressed  in  strong  play  habits,  especially 
interests  in  mechanical  occupations,  literary 
pursuits,  and  artistic  work  are  probably  indica- 


132  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

live  of  permanent  interest  and  natural  adapta- 
tion in  many  cases.  Compositions  on  tlie 
subject  of  adult  occupations  may  give  valuable 
information  about  a  child's  ambitions.  Such 
questions  as  these  can  be  asked:  AVhat  do  you 
wish  to  do  when  you  are  grown  up?  Why?  Of 
all  the  people  you  have  read  about  whom  would 
you  like  most  to  be  or  to  imitate?     Why? 

Interests  in  school  subjects  indicate,  in  a 
measure,  special  abilities  and  types  of  mind. 
The  child  should  be  asked  to  write  about  his 
preferences  for  school  subjects,  and  to  give 
reasons  for  them.  The  interest  expressed  is  to 
be  studied  in  relation  to  the  ability  the  child 
shows  in  the  preferred  subjects.  The  child  with 
a  marked  interest  in  mathematical  work  should 
be  studied  with  reference  to  indications  of  spe- 
cial interest,  ability,  or  deficiency  in  other  lines; 
especially  in  such  subjects  as  history,  nature 
study,  music  and  drawing;  and  in  memory  work 
generally.  Correlations  among  interests  may 
be  discovered  that  are  based  upon  deep-seated 
psychological  laws. 

Interests  in  literature.  These  interests  are 
partly  diagnostic  of  temperament  and  partly 
indications  of  stage  of  development.  Excessive 
interest  in  books  should  be  noticed  as  a  sign  of 
lack  of  motor  interests ;  in  rare  cases  it  certainly 
indicates  exceptional  ability  in  literary  or  scien- 
tific pursuits.  Interests  different  from  those  of 
children  of  the  same  age  should  be  studied  in 


INTERESTS  AND  INSTINCTS  133 

cases  in  which  they  appear ;  such  as  early  inter- 
ests in  fiction,  and  interests  on  the  part  of  older 
children  that  show  infantile  traits.  Children 
may  be  asked  to  write  about  their  interests  in 
books,  to  tell  what  book  of  all  they  have  ever 
read  they  like  best,  and  the  reasons  for  the 
preference.  Names  of  ten  books  that  they  like 
can  be  called  for;  or  names  of  all  the  books 
they  have  read,  that  they  can  remember. 

Other  interests  common  to  childhood  should 
be  examined  and  all  indications  of  special  inter- 
ests and  ability  should  be  noticed  in  connection 
with  other  traits  of  the  child.  Especially  to  be 
sought  is  information  about  that  which  is  pecu- 
liar to  the  inner  forces  of  the  individual  rather 
than  to  the  effects  of  the  educational  process 
through  which  he  has  been  put.  It  is  difficult 
to  distinguish  between  the  two  factors  in  in- 
terest, and  it  is  still  more  difficult  to  distin- 
guish between  developmental  stage  and  perma- 
nent individual  characteristic.  The  importance 
of  interests  in  the  life  of  an  individual  depends, 
moreover,  not  entirely  upon  the  strength  of  the 
interests  considered  singly,  but  in  their  balance 
and  interaction.  Strong  interest,  and  even 
great  special  ability,  may  exist  side  by  side  with 
other  interests  or  tendencies  that  antagonize 
them,  and  perhaps  in  the  end  completely  nullify 
them. 

It  is  particularly  in  studying  the  interests  of 
the  child  that  the  relation   of  developmental 


134  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

stage  to  individual  difference  can  be  studied.  A 
child  may  differ  from  the  average  of  his  own 
age  because  in  some  trait  or  many  he  has  ad- 
vanced beyond  the  stage  of  that  age  or  has 
lagged  behind  it;  later  these  inequalities  may 
be  eradicated  b)'  the  effect  of  environment  or 
by  accelerations  or  retardations  of  the  growth 
processes.  Or  these  departures  from  the  av- 
erage rate  of  development  may  be  permanent, 
and  the  departure  may  increase  with  age.  The 
child  may  become  a  defective  from  actual  defi- 
ciency or  lack  of  balance  among  his  functions  — 
or  in  rare  cases  he  may  become  a  genius.  Not 
all  differences  among  individuals  can  thus  be 
interpreted  in  terms  of  development  of  func- 
tions, but  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  one  cannot 
profoundly  understand  an  individual  without 
understanding  the  whole  process  of  development 
of  the  child. 

The  complexity  of  the  individual  comes 
clearly  to  light  in  observing  interests,  and  their 
meaning.  It  can  be  seen  that  the  purposive  life 
can  be  conceived  of  as  a  sum  of  interests,  and 
that  these  interests  are  balanced  in  the  individ- 
ual, and  so  interrelated  and  checked  one  by  the 
other,  that  a  normal  life,  coordinated  with  the 
life  of  other  individuals  in  mutually  helpful 
ways  usually  results.  But  the  development  of 
interests  is  no  mere  unfolding  of  instincts;  for 
at  the  very  beginning  of  life  an  intricate  process 
of  interaction  commences  between  these  innate 


INTERESTS  AND  INSTINCTS  135 

will  elements  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other 
the  environmental  forces,  themselves  highly 
complex,  variable  to  a  great  degree,  and  increas- 
ingly so  as  civilization  advances.  Interests  are 
the  means  of  selecting  environment,  and  the 
mind  of  the  child  being  plastic,  interests  are 
produced  and  modified  by  the  environment. 
Gradually  these  interacting  forces  of  tempera- 
ment and  environment  come  to  balance,  mental 
content  and  habit  accumulate  about  definite  in- 
terests, and  the  individual  comes  to  that  final 
differentiation  that  marks  him  off  in  adult  life 
as  a  person  performing  a  particular  function  in 
the  intricate  mesh  of  society.  We  understand 
an  adult  fairly  well  for  practical  purposes  when 
we  know  the  main  content-groups  of  his  mind, 
and  something  about  the  relative  force  of  these 
groups  in  determining  conduct.  In  the  child 
these  content-groups  have  not  become  formed, 
and  the  interests  are  still  in  a  state  of  flux, 
revealing  only  here  and  there  indications  of  per- 
manent form. 

Having  now  examined  the  life  of  the  child 
from  the  standpoint  of  observation  of  his  natu- 
ral interests,  the  attention  can  be  turned  to  the 
effect  of  environment;  to  understand  what  it 
has  contributed  to  the  interests,  and  what,  in 
fact,  the  actual  content  of  the  child's  mind  is. 
From  this  point  of  view  an  interest  arises  in 
what  the  child  had  actually  said,  done,  made, 
read ;  what  his  experiences  have  been,  where  he 


136  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

had  lived,  what  he  has  learned  in  addition  to 
the  content  furnished  him  by  the  school. 

If  the  child's  school  experience  has  been  in 
any  way  exceptional  the  circumstances  should 
be  known.  The  home  conditions  should  be 
understood.  Are  they  favorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  many  interests?  Has  the  child  lived 
in  an  atmosphere  of  interest  in  the  large  themes 
of  current  affairs?  Has  he  been  much  influ- 
enced directly  or  indirectly  by  books?  By  oc- 
cupational interests?  In  general,  is  he  well- 
informed,  and  in  what  topics  does  he  seem  to 
be  most,  and  in  what  least,  informed? 

The  content  of  mind  can  be  examined  further 
by  definite  written  or  oral  test.  Such  questions 
as  the  following  can  be  used  to  test  general  in- 
formation; they  can  be  modified  to  suit  par- 
ticular conditions  of  the  group  to  be  tested: 

From  what  is  cotton  obtained?  Linen,  gas, 
kerosene  oil,  beer,  brandy?  IIow  is  cloth  made? 
A  nail,  a  tack,  a  shoe?  What  does  a  lawyer 
do?  A  broker,  a  banker?  How  does  a  manu- 
facturer make  money?  A  railroad,  a  bank? 
How  does  an  automobile  go?  A  locomotive,  a 
telephone,  a  telegraph  instrument,  wireless  tele- 
graph, a  phonograph,  a  piano,  an  organ? 
What  is  the  cost  of  coal  per  ton?  Sugar  per 
pound,  shoes,  a  house,  a  horse?  Who  is  now 
King  of  England?  Of  Germany,  Russia? 
Where  is  there  war  now?  Who  is  Vice-Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States?     The  Senators  from 


INTERESTS  AND  INSTINCTS  137 

the  State?  Eepresentative  from  the  District? 
Name  five  physicians,  five  lawyers,  five  business 
men,  and  five  clergymen  in  the  city.  How  far 
is  it  from  here  to  (name  five  large  cities)  ? 
What  is  the  railroad  fare  to  each?  Name  five 
people  who  have  written  books.  Other  ques- 
tions about  current  events,  general  and  local, 
can  be  asked.  The  answers  can  be  marked  and 
graded  in  the  manner  of  the  ordinary  examina- 
tion paper. 

Other  questions  enquiring  about  the  experi- 
ence of  the  child  can  be  asked,  such  as:  Tell 
all  you  can  about  some  city  you  have  visited. 
"What  others  could  you  tell  about?  What  do 
you  know  about  an  ocean  that  you  have  seen 
for  yourself?  A  river,  a  lake?  Tell  all  you 
can  about  a  steamboat,  a  sailing  vessel,  a  hotel, 
a  theater,  a  circus.  What  kind  of  factories 
have  you  visited?  Tell  all  you  can  about  each. 
What  books  have  you  read?  What  newspapers 
do  you  read?  Tell  about  something  you  have 
read  in  a  newspaper  this  week.  Tell  about 
some  good  way  for  a  boy  (or  girl)  to  earn 
money. 

REFERENCES 

For  additional  reading  in  the  subject  of  children's 
interests,  instincts,  and  experiences,  the  Bibliography 
of  Child  Study  by  L.  N.  Wilson  should  be  consulted. 
Many  articles  will  be  found  under  the  headings  of 
ambitions,  interests,  amusements,  play,  that  will  throw 
sidelights  upon  these  topics  of  individuality.     Most 


138  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

of  the  articles  bearing  most  directly  upon  this  chap- 
ter will  be  found  in  the  Pedagogical  Seminary, 
Barnes'  Studios  in  Education,  Proceedings  of  the 
N.  E.  A.  An  article  by  L.  W.  Kline,  The  ^ligratory 
Impulse  vs.  tlie  Love  of  Home  (Am.  Jour,  of  Psychol- 
ogy, Vol.  10,  pp.  1-81),  can  be  mentioned  especially 
as  an  excellent  attempt  to  interpret  interests  in  child- 
hood in  relation  to  an  evolutionary  conception  of  their 
origin.  Books  on  Child  Development  such  as  those 
of  Chamberlain,  Tanner,  Kirkpatrick,  should  be  read. 


SOME   GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS   OF   INTEREST 

In  addition  to  those  traits  of  the  life  of  emo- 
tion, instinct,  and  interest  that  have  been  de- 
scribed there  are  certain  others  that  are  related 
in  a  special  way  to  the  development  of  intelli- 
gence. They  can  perhaps  best  be  designated 
as  qualities  or  factors  of  interest.  Included 
under  this  topic  would  be  an  investigation  of 
qualities  of  attention,  habits  of  imitation,  curi- 
osity, interests  in  experimentation  and  in  men- 
tal activity  for  its  own  sake,  susceptiblity  to 
suggestion.  To  investigate  all  the  traits  that 
are  brought  to  view  in  taking  this  attitude  in 
observing  the  individual  would  require  access 
to  the  exact  methods  of  the  laboratory,  and  an 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  methods  of  psycho- 
logical analysis,  for  some  of  the  most  central 
themes    of   psychology    are    here    approached. 


TRAITS  OF  INTEREST  139 

But  enough  can  be  accomplished  in  a  prelim- 
inary study  to  show  the  bearing  of  these  quali- 
ties of  the  individual  upon  his  intellectual 
development,  and  to  indicate  differences  among 
individuals  and  the  methods  of  observing  them. 

Attention.  Facts  about  the  attention  of  the 
child  under  observation  should  be  ascertained; 
whether  his  attention  is  generally  easy  to  gain 
and  hold ;  whether,  when  he  is  working  at  tasks 
that  do  not  appeal  to  his  natural  interests,  he 
is  strongly  attentive  and  persistent,  or  whether 
the  attention  is  fluctuating,  easily  interrupted, 
and  lacking  in  persistence.  Deficiency  of  atten- 
tion may  be  due  to  lack  of  effort,  or  to  lack  of 
ability  to  concentrate,  or  to  both.  Comparison 
of  the  child's  habits  of  attention  and  interest 
when  working  at  tasks  that  are  intrinsically 
uninteresting  with  his  attitudes  in  preferred 
work  or  play,  will  throw  some  light  upon  the  re- 
lation of  effort  to  capacity  for  concentration. 

The  child's  spontaneous  interests  in  acquir- 
ing knowledge  should  be  noticed;  as  expressed 
in  curiosity,  habits  of  enquiry,  experimentation, 
habits  of  observation.  Curiosity  can  be  defined 
as  the  desire  to  know,  without  special  reference 
to  need  or  use.  Does  the  child  under  observa- 
tion possess  this  quality  in  a  marked  degree! 
Does  he  show  a  desire  to  gain  information  for 
a  purpose,  and  is  he  persistent  in  his  efforts 
to  gain  it?  Does  he  seem  to  have  spontaneous 
interests  in  learning,  or  does  he  merely  absorb 


140  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

■what  is  assigned  him  to  learn?  Does  he  ask 
questions  frequently,  and  does  he  take  interest 
in  learning  by  testing  or  experimenting?  Does 
the  child  seem  to  have  a  keen  sense  of  truth, 
and  to  desire  to  get  to  the  bottom  of  a  question  ? 
Is  he  critical,  or  is  he  readily  satisfied  with  the 
answer  that  is  given  him  ?  Does  he  try  to  prove 
statements  for  himself,  to  seek  authority  for  his 
opinions,  to  demand  it  of  others?  Does  the 
child  seem  to  enjoy  mental  work  for  its  own 
sake?  Does  he  like  to  do  hard  problems,  and 
to  get  the  answer  for  himself?  Or  does  he 
readily  give  up,  and  ask  for  help?  Does  he 
enjoy  solving  puzzles,  and  what  kind  of  puzzles 
interest  him  most?  Is  he  patient  and  persistent 
in  solving  them,  or  is  he  impatient  and  irritable? 
Does  he  enjoy  exercises  in  which  the  mind  is 
allowed  free  play,  as  in  imaginative  construc- 
tion in  planning  stories,  plays  and  the  like?  Is 
he  often  in  a  "  brown  study  "  or  subject  to 
states  of  absorption  or  reverie  (which  must  be 
distinguished  from  "just  looking")?  Does 
he  generally  seem  mentally  active  when  not 
working  at  definite  tasks?  Is  the  child  imi- 
tative, as  in  preferences,  dress,  manner,  in 
games?  Or  is  he  independent  in  his  views, 
habits  and  the  like?  Is  he  suggestible,  and  does 
he  readily  accept  advice? 

Many  of  the  characteristics  mentioned  above 
are  accessible  to  experimental  methods,  and 
some  of  the  most  interesting  problems  of  ex- 


TRAITS  OF  INTEREST  141 

perimental  psychology  center  in  these  topics. 
Experiments  upon  attention  can  be  performed 
upon  a  class.  Sheets  of  paper  containing  sixty 
problems  in  multiplication  should  be  prepared, 
two  places  in  the  multiplicand  and  one  in  the 
multiplier.  The  children  are  directed  to  multi- 
ply as  rapidly  as  possible  for  two  minutes. 
The  point  that  is  then  reached  is  marked. 
Then  an  interesting  story  is  read  aloud  to  the 
children  until  their  attention  is  well  aroused. 
Then,  while  the  story  is  continued,  two  minutes 
more  of  the  mathematical  work,  done  as  before 
at  greatest  speed,  are  required.  The  amount 
and  quality  of  the  work  done  with  distraction 
is  to  be  compared  with  the  amount  and  quality 
done  without  it.  The  numerical  result  is  a 
measure,  in  a  way,  of  a  quality  that  appears 
in  much  of  the  child's  work,  but  one  that  is 
psychologically  complex.  Both  willingness  and 
ability  to  concentrate  are  involved.  One  child 
may  with  less  effort  turn  the  attention  away 
from  the  story  because  he  is  less  interested  in 
the  story,  or  because  the  mathematical  work 
appeals  more  strongly  to  him.  Some  are  in- 
cited to  greater  effort  than  others  by  the  ele- 
ment of  competition  that  is  involved.  A  sense 
of  duty  and  literal  obedience  influences  others. 
Numerical  results,  therefore,  need  analysis  and 
interpretation.  By  varying  the  conditions  and 
material  of  the  experiment  one  or  another  fac- 
tor can  be   emphasized.    For   a   second   test, 


142  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

words  can  be  copied  from  a  book  and  such  dis- 
tractions as  music  or  loud  noise  can  be  used. 
But  the  result  is  always  a  measure  of  a  com- 
plex made  up  of  both  ability  and  willingness 
to  work  under  certain  conditions.  The  factor 
of  effort  can  be  made  more  uniform  by  strongly 
exciting  competition,  by  giving  rewards  for  the 
best  work  and  other  means,  and  so  an  approxi- 
mately pure  power  of  concentration  for  a 
particular  form  of  work  may  be  tested.  The 
most  interesting  result  of  class  experiments 
upon  attention  is  likely  to  be  the  exceptional 
record.  Experiments  that  take  the  child  away 
from  the  routine  ways  of  applying  the  mind 
such  as  are  common  in  the  schoolroom,  al- 
though they  test  the  same  abilities,  are  likely 
to  reveal  aspects  of  the  mental  organization 
that  have  not  before  been  observed.  The  re- 
sults may  throw  light  upon  abilities  and  disabili- 
ties of  the  child  that  underlie  qualities  of  his 
school  work. 

Habits  of  observation  can  be  tested  in  several 
ways.  Written  exercises  can  be  assigned  call- 
ing for  description  from  memory  of  familiar 
objects.  Such  questions  as  these  can  be  used: 
Tell  all  you  can  remember  about  tlie  appear- 
ance of  the  front  entrance  of  the  schoolhouse. 
Tell  all  you  can  about  the  back  of  the  school- 
room. Which  way  do  the  seeds  of  an  apple 
run?  Of  a  pear?  How  does  a  cat  come  down 
a  tree?     How  many  legs  and  how  many  wings 


TRAITS  OF  INTEREST  143 

has  a  fly?  Additions  to  such  questions  can 
readily  be  made,  and  the  results  can  be  graded 
and  marked  like  the  ordinary  examination 
paper. 

An  interesting  experiment  that  will  test  the 
same  trait  of  children  can  be  performed  upon 
a  class.  Time  should  be  chosen  when  there  is 
a  short  intermission  in  the  school  work.  Some- 
one enters  the  room  by  prearrangement,  goes 
to  the  desk  and  speaks  to  the  teacher  in  low 
tones,  meantime  performing  some  apparently 
unintentional  act,  such  as  taking  a  flower  from 
the  desk  and  smelling  it,  and  then  replacing  it. 
He  may  then  start  to  leave  the  room,  return  to 
the  desk,  and  get  a  book  as  though  he  had  for- 
gotten it,  and  then  leave  the  room.  The  test 
action  can  be  simplified  or  complicated  in  any 
way  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  experimenter. 
The  children  are  then  asked  to  describe  in  writ- 
ing what  happened  in  the  room,  to  give  details 
of  the  appearance  of  the  visitor,  and  to  tell 
precisely  what  he  did.  Children  should  be  al- 
lowed time  for  the  writing  until  they  are  satis- 
fied that  they  have  told  all  they  can  remember. 

Many  experiments  upon  suggestibility  have 
been  devised.  One  that  will  show  something 
about  the  characteristics  that  are  to  be  studied, 
but  which  will  not  be  suitable  to  bring  out  de- 
grees of  difference  sufficient  for  a  study  of  indi- 
viduality, can  be  made  as  follows  :  An  atomizer 
is  prepared  containing  pure  water.     After  a  few 


144  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

minutes'  talk  about  flowers  or  perfumes,  in 
which  some  familiar  odors  are  mentioned,  the 
children  are  told  that  something  is  to  be  sprayed 
about  the  room,  and  they  are  to  write  after- 
wards whether  they  have  smelled  anything  and 
what  it  was ;  whether  it  was  very  strong,  or  just 
ordinary,  or  barely  strong  enough  to  be  noticed. 
The  water  is  then  sprayed  in  several  parts  of 
the  room.  The  questions  are  repeated  and  the 
children  are  then  allowed  to  write  their  answers. 
Among  younger  children,  nearly  all  will  re- 
spond to  the  suggestion  in  some  degree,  but 
some  unusual  cases  are  likely  to  be  discovered 
in  which  there  is  a  high  degree  of  suggesti- 
bility. 

Another  instructive  experiment  upon  sug- 
gestibility which  can  be  performed  without 
apparatus,  and  which  will  admit  of  numerical 
calculation,  is  the  following:  Twelve  cards, 
80  mm.  by  40  mm.,  are  prepared.  In  the  cen- 
ter of  the  cards  lines  are  to  be  drawn,  one 
on  each  card.  The  lines  should  be  drawn 
lengthwise  of  the  cards  with  equal  margin  at 
each  end.  Eight  of  the  lines  are  to  be  drawn 
60  mm.  in  length  and  one  each  48,  36,  24,  12  mm. 
Sheets  of  paper  (ruled)  of  foolscap  size  are  to 
be  provided.  The  method  of  experimenting  is 
as  follows:  The  cards  are  shown  to  the  child 
one  at  a  time  and  in  this  order  — 12,  24,  36, 
48,  60,  60,  60,  60,  60,  60,  60,  60.  After  the  first 
line  is  shown,  and  before  the  next  appears,  the 


TRAITS  OF  INTEREST  145 

child  is  requested  to  draw  the  length  of  the  line 
(the  line  still  remaining  before  him)  upon  the 
top  line  of  the  ruled  sheet,  beginning  at  the  left 
margin  of  the  paper.  The  next  line  is  shown 
and  reproduced  in  the  same  manner ;  and  so  on 
until  all  are  drawn.  Nearly  all  children  will  be 
influenced  by  the  increasing  steps  to  continue  to 
make  them  in  reproducing  the  lines  of  60  mm. 
length.  Various  degrees  of  suggestibility  will 
be  observed.  Some  will  continue  to  make  the 
lines  longer  to  the  end  of  the  series.  Others 
will  make  a  correction  when  the  last  line  drawn 
is  obviously  longer  than  the  new  copy,  and  will 
commence  another  increasing  series.  The 
amount  and  character  of  suggestibility  shown 
can  be  estimated  by  inspection  of  the  papers 
and  the  children  can  be  graded  or  grouped  ac- 
cording to  the  degree  of  suggestibility.  Or  the 
amount  by  which  lines  after  the  fifth  exceed  the 
length  of  the  fifth  line  can  be  used  as  a  rough 
index  of  suggestibility. 

A  similar  experiment  can  be  made  with  cart- 
ridge shells  loaded  with  shot.  A  series  of 
weights  can  be  arranged  weighing  20,  40,  60, 
100, 100, 100, 100, 100, 100, 100, 100  grams.  The 
weights  are  to  be  lifted  in  succession  with  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  right  hand.  When 
the  first  weight  is  lifted  the  child  is  told  that  it 
weighs  20  grams,  and  he  is  asked  to  estimate 
the  weight  of  each  of  the  others  as  it  is  lifted. 
The  experimenter  records  the  weights  that  are 


146  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

aunounced  and  the  amount  of  suggestibility  is 
estimated  as  in  tlie  preceding  experiment. 

REFERENCES 

Wilson's  Bihlio<j:raphy  may  be  consulted  for  titles 
of  articles  on  attention,  imitation,  suggestion,  and  the 
like.  For  further  reading  in  methods  of  psychological 
experimentation  Seashore's  Elementary  Experiments 
in  Psychology  can  be  read,  or  Sanford's  Course  in 
Experimental  Psychology.  The  most  complete  trea- 
tise on  the  psychological  laboratory  and  its  methods 
is  Titchener's  Experimental  Psychology,  in  4  volumes. 
A  few  special  articles  can  be  mentioned  such  as: — 

E.  H.  Haskell :  Imitation  in  school  children.  Peda- 
gogical Seminary,  III,  30-47. 

C.  Frear:  Imitation.  Pedagogical  Seminary,  IV, 
382-396. 

M.  II.  Small:  The  Suggestibility  of  Cliildren. 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  IV,  176-220. 

J.  A.  Gilbert :  Mental  and  Physical  Development  of 
School  Children.  Studies  from  the  Yale  Psycholog- 
ical Laboratory. 


XI 

SENSES   AND    PERCEPTION 

In  general  psychology,  the  experimental  study 
of  the  simplest  mental  processes  such  as  sen- 
sation and  perception  is  much  further  ad- 
vanced than  the  study  of  the  more  complex 
processes.     In  the  study  of  individuals,  on  the 


SENSES  AND  PERCEPTION  147 

other  hand,  attention  seems  rightly  to  have  been 
most  directed  to  those  larger  functions  that  are 
most  characteristic  of  individuality.  The  study 
of  the  elementary  processes  by  the  exact  meth- 
ods of  the  laboratory,  although  an  important 
part  of  the  study  of  differences  among  individ- 
uals, is  a  part  that  as  yet  bears  less  directly 
upon  practical  problems.  It  is  possible  that  in 
a  more  advanced  stage  of  development  of  the 
subject  relations  between  sensory  processes 
that  can  be  measured  simply  and  exactly  and 
the  complex  processes  that  cannot  thus  be  esti- 
mated may  be  so  well  made  out  that  differences 
in  the  former  may  be  used  as  a  measure  of  dif- 
ferences in  the  latter  —  and  thus  make  it  pos- 
sible to  perform  a  simple  series  of  experiments 
that  will  test  the  individual.  But  at  present,  as 
we  have  seen,  no  such  testing  of  the  individual 
is  possible.  The  extended  experimental  study 
of  the  senses  belongs  rather  to  general  psychol- 
ogy than  to  the  study  of  individuals,  at  least 
for  the  purposes  of  obtaining  a  practical  knowl- 
edge of  them.  Yet  it  is  both  interesting  and 
important  to  discover  some  of  the  differences 
among  individuals  in  the  elementary  processes 
that  general  psychology  aims  to  isolate  for 
study. 

Vision.  The  functions  of  the  eye  are  com- 
plex, and  the  differential  study  of  vision  could 
be  made  the  subject  of  a  long  course  of  experi- 
mentation.    Such  functions  as  sensitivity  of  the 


148  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

eye  to  light,  acuity  of  vision,  sensations  of  color, 
extent  of  the  field  of  vision,  muscular  functions 
of  the  eye  can  be  measured  with  precision. 
The  methods  used  are,  for  the  most  part,  those 
used  in  general  psychology  and  are  the  same  for 
adult  and  child.  They  can  be  studied  at  length 
in  the  standard  works  on  experimental  psy- 
chology. 

Discriminative  sensibility  for  brightness  can 
be  examined  by  means  of  a  series  of  grays 
according  to  the  method  described  below.  For 
other  methods  of  testing  that  require  some 
form  of  color  mixer,  one  can  consult  Sauford's 
"  Course  in  Experimental  Psychology,"  p.  128. 

Color  discrimination.  For  studying  color 
discrimination,  Gilbert  used  a  series  of  spe- 
cially prepared  shades  of  red  cloth,  so  dyed  that 
the  difference  between  two  successive  shades 
could  not  be  detected  by  anyone.  The  test  can 
be  performed  by  means  of  a  series  of  shades  of 
red  in  paper,  or  test  material  can  easily  be  pre- 
pared that  will  do  well  for  practice  purposes. 
A  solution  of  potassium  permanganate  can  be 
prepared,  making  a  bright  red.  Fill  a  two- 
ounce  vial  with  the  liquid  and  mark  it  on  the 
bottom  (1).  Add  two  ounces  of  clear  water  to 
the  solution  and  fill  another  bottle,  marking  it 
(2) ;  and  so  on  until  there  are  twenty-five  or 
thirty  bottles  filled.  The  colors  should  appear 
so  graded  that  no  successive  ones  can  be  distin- 
guished.    The  bottles  are  then  arranged  in  an 


SENSES  AND  PERCEPTION  149 

irregular  order  and  the  child  is  asked  to  sort 
them  into  groups,  putting  together  those  that 
appear  alike  to  him.  The  number  of  groups 
that  are  made  will  be  a  measure,  inversely,  of 
his  color  discrimination. 

More  accurate  methods  of  using  a  color  series 
for  testing  discrimination  can  be  practiced ;  the 
methods  are  such  as  are  employed  in  many 
forms  of  psychological  experiment.  One  of 
the  medium  shades  is  chosen  as  a  standard. 
This  and  the  shade  next  above  or  below  are 
shown  to  the  child  together,  and  he  is  requested 
to  say  which  is  the  lighter.  If  he  cannot  tell, 
the  standard  is  then  to  be  compared  with  the 
next  but  one  in  the  series,  an^  so  on  until  two 
are  found  about  which  the  child  gives  correct 
judgments  in  about  three-fourths  of  the  trials. 
In  testing,  the  two  shades  to  be  judged  should 
always  be  shown  together,  sometimes  the  lighter 
and  sometimes  the  darker  on  the  left.  The  dis- 
tance apart  in  the  series  of  the  two  shades  that 
the  child  thus  decides  to  be  different  is  the  meas- 
ure of  his  discrimination  for  this  particular 
series  of  shades. 

Such  tests,  it  must  be  understood,  are  but  in 
part  tests  of  sensory  keenness  of  the  individual. 
They  are,  to  a  certain  extent,  also  tests  of  atten- 
tion and  general  intelligence.  Several  traits 
should  be  observed  in  making  any  test  of  dis- 
crimination; the  fineness  of  the  judgment  as  is 
indicated    by    the    numerical    expression    de- 


150  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

scribed  above,  and  the  variability  of  the  judg- 
ment as  indicated  by  errors  or  by  the  results  of 
tests  at  intervals.  The  manner  in  which  the 
child  delivers  the  judgment  should  be  noticed; 
also,  the  degree  of  confidence  expressed,  and  the 
extent  to  which  he  looks  to  the  experimenter  for 
confirmation  of  his  judgments. 

Discrimination  for  visual  lengths  can  be 
tested  by  having  the  child  mark  the  center  of 
strips  of  pajier  of  ec^ual  length.  Many  trials 
should  be  made,  the  average  error  found,  and 
also  the  average  deviation  as  a  measure  of 
variability. 

Rapidity  of  perceptive  processes  can  be  tested 
without  complicated  apparatus.  For  test  ma- 
terial a  printed  page  can  be  used,  or  better, 
specially  printed  slips,  containing  lines  of  capi- 
tal letters,  set  in  haphazard  order.  Ten  lines, 
fifty  letters  in  each  line,  including  ten  A's,  will 
be  found  convenient.  The  lines  should  be  set 
solid,  that  is,  without  spacing  between  the  let- 
ters. At  a  signal  the  child  begins  to  cross  out 
all  the  A's  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Work  is 
continued  for  two  minutes.  Both  quality  and 
quantity  of  the  work  should  be  taken  into  ac- 
count. Several  types  of  children  will  be  found, 
such  as  the  rapid-accurate,  slow-accurate,  rapid- 
inaccurate,  slow-inaccurate.  The  test  should 
be  repeated  on  several  occasions  and  the  aver- 
age taken.  Irregularity  in  the  work  from  day 
to  day  is  to  be  noticed  as  well  as  the  amount 


SENSES  AND  PERCEPTION  151 

done.  The  process  can  be  complicated  by  hav- 
ing the  child  cross  out  more  than  one  letter. 

This  method  can  be  used  also  as  a  test  of 
mental  fatigue.  Cards  containing  twenty  lines 
should  be  used  and  the  work  continued  until 
all  are  marked.  A  signal  is  given  at  the  end 
of  each  thirty  seconds,  and  the  point  then 
reached  marked.  The  quantity  and  quality  of 
the  work  for  each  period  are  then  to  be  esti- 
mated. 

Eapidity  of  perceptive  processes  can  be  tested 
in  other  ways.  Cards  can  be  prepared  con- 
taining geometrical  figures  cut  from  black  pa- 
per, ten  on  each  card  in  an  irregular  order. 
Other  series  can  be  prepared  consisting  of 
squares  of  colored  paper  or  capital  letters.  In 
testing,  the  cards  are  exposed  for  a  period  of 
two  seconds,  and  the  child  is  asked  to  tell  all 
he  saw  during  the  exposure.  With  some  prac- 
tice with  a  split  second  watch  the  timing  can 
be  done  sufficiently  accurately ;  or  if  there  is  no 
watch,  a  pendulum  can  be  made  from  a  piece  of 
twine  and  a  weight  adjusted  to  beat  one  or  two 
second  periods. 

A  still  more  complicated  process  involving 
choice  made  as  rapidly  as  possible  can  be  tested. 
It  is  a  process  that  is  typical  of  many  practical 
acts,  and  experiments  have  shown  that  it  stands 
in  close  relation  to  the  general  intelligence  of 
the  child.  An  ordinary  pack  of  playing  cards 
can  be  used.     Some  preliminary  practice  may  be 


152  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

necessary  in  order  to  make  the  children  famil- 
iar with  the  four  kinds  of  cards.  In  testing, 
tlie  child  is  requested  to  sort  the  cards  as  rap- 
idly as  possible  into  four  packs.  The  pack  is 
held  face  downward.  Better  material  for  mak- 
ing this  test  is  a  pack  of  specially  printed  cards 
bearing  large  capital  letters,  A's,  B's,  C's,  D's, 
in  equal  numbers.  The  letters  should  be  large 
and  distinct,  and  glazed  cards  used. 

A  series  of  experiments  should  be  made  in 
connection  with  the  test  just  described,  in  which 
the  child  deals  the  cards  into  four  piles  without 
sorting.  If  this  time  is  subtracted  from  the 
time  of  sorting  with  choice,  the  time  of  the 
choice  processes  is  roughly  measured. 

Experiments  made  with  similar  tests  upon 
children  in  New  York  City  show  a  close  corre- 
lation between  ability  in  the  test  and  the  gen- 
eral intelligence  of  the  child  as  shown  by  the 
relation  of  his  age  to  grade  in  school.  The 
sorting  time  was  also  found  to  be  closely  corre- 
lated with  ability  to  deal  cards  without  choice, 
with  rate  of  tapping,  marking  out  A's,  and  with 
memory  for  digits,  the  amount  of  correlation 
varying  in  the  different  tests. 

REFERENCES 

The  works  on  Experimental  Psychology  by  Tit- 
chener,  Sanford,  Seashore,  and  Witmer  can  be  con- 
sulted for  additional  experiments.  See  also  Gilbert, 
article  previously  mentioned,  for  methods  of  testing 


SENSES  AND  PERCEPTION  153 

color  discrimination.  Many  references  will  be  found 
in  Wilson's  Bibliography  under  headings: — vision, 
color  perception,  judgment,  discrimination. 


XII 

SENSES   AND   PEKCEPTION 

(Continued) 

For  testing  discriminative  sensibility  for 
sounds,  apparatus  is  needed,  but  the  method 
of  experimenting  can  be  illustrated  and  esti- 
mates made  sufficiently  exact  for  present  pur- 
poses by  means  of  a  devise  that  can  readily 
be  arranged.  A  board  a  few  inches  square 
should  be  provided  and  covered  with  thick  cloth 
or  felt  glued  smoothly  to  the  surface.  A  scale 
marked  in  fractions  of  an  inch  is  attached  ver- 
tically to  the  side,  and  should  be  two  feet  in 
length.  For  testing,  marbles  of  equal  size  and 
weight  can  be  used.  Starting  from  a  given 
height  a  sound  is  made  by  dropping  the  marble 
upon  the  board ;  this  is  the  standard  sound  with 
which  a  louder  sound  is  to  be  compared.  The 
standard  sound  should  be  made  and  immedi- 
ately afterward  a  sound  a  little  louder,  made  by 
dropping  a  marble  from  a  greater  height.  If 
no  difference  is  detected,  a  greater  distance  is 
tried,  the  standard  and  the  test  sound  being 
made  in  close  succession.  The  distance  is  to  be 
increased  gradually,  sometimes  the  louder  sound 


154  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

being  made  first  and  sometimes  the  standard, 
until  a  point  is  reached  at  which  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  answers  are  correct.  The  dis- 
tance between  the  height  of  the  standard  and 
the  height  thus  found  can  be  used  as  a  measure 
of  discriminative  ability  for  this  particular 
series  of  sounds. 

Discrimination  for  pitch  of  musical  tones  can 
be  tested  satisfactorily  only  with  apparatus  and 
laboratory  methods.  Gilbert  devised  a  pitch 
})ipe  with  a  movable  piston  and  a  scale  show- 
ing changes  to  ^  of  a  tone.  For  exact  tests, 
tuning  forks  are  usually  used.  For  practice 
purposes  a  simple  sonometer  can  be  devised 
by  stretching  two  brass  wires  across  the  top  of 
a  table  an  inch  from  the  surface.  The  wires  are 
attached  at  one  end  and  weighted  at  the  other. 
The  weights  are  adjusted  so  that  the  two  strings 
when  sounded  together  appear  to  be  in  perfect 
unison  as  judged  by  an  acute  ear.  The  child  is 
then  told  to  listen  to  the  sounds  as  they  are 
made  in  succession,  the  first  being  dampened 
before  the  second  is  produced,  and  to  tell  which 
is  the  higher  in  pitch.  If  no  difference  is  de- 
tected weight  should  be  added,  and  another 
judgment  taken,  and  so  on  by  the  gradation 
method  that  has  already  been  described,  until 
a  point  is  found  at  which  there  is  an  observable 
difference.  Tlu^  ainonnl  of  weight  that  has 
been  added  is  used  as  a  measure  of  the  dis- 
crimination for  this  particular  experiment. 


SENSES  AND  PERCEPTION  155 

Other  experiments  upon  sound  perception 
may  bring  to  light  interesting  differences  among 
children.  Perception  of  rhythm  can  be  tested 
by  having  the  child  tap  with  the  end  of  a  pencil 
in  imitation  of  rhythms  that  are  similarly 
tapped  by  the  experimenter.  One  should  begin 
with  the  simple  musical  rhythms  and  then  try 
more  complex  combinations.  The  tapping 
should  be  slow  and  distinct. 

Experiments  upon  other  senses  can  be  in- 
cluded or  not  in  this  series  according  to  the 
amount  of  practice  in  psychological  methods 
that  is  desired.  The  practical  results  so  far  as 
the  numerical  estimates  are  concerned  will  be 
slight.  But  children  are  usually  much  inter- 
ested in  such  experiments  and  their  actions  in 
the  tests  are  likely  to  be  more  illuminating  to 
the  amateur  observer  than  the  numerical 
records  he  will  make. 

Sensitiveness  of  the  skin  to  pressure  is  tested 
by  means  of  very  light  weights  called  minimal 
pressure  weights.  They  can  be  made  from 
elder  pith  or  cork  if  accurate  scales  such  as 
are  used  in  a  chemical  laboratory  are  accessi- 
ble. Rectangular  prisms  of  the  pith  can  be 
made,  5  mm.  square,  and  the  weights  cut  from 
these.  Handles  can  be  made  by  fastening  a 
loop  of  hair  to  them.  A  series  of  from  2  milli- 
grams to  20  milligrams  will  be  found  suitable. 
Considerable  skill  and  patience  will  be  required 
to  make  an  accurate  set.     In  testing,  the  lightest 


156  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

weight  is  held  by  the  loop  on  a  pencil  point  or 
long  needle  and  is  then  let  down  gently  upon 
the  back  of  the  hand  of  the  child  to  be  tested, 
the  eyes  of  the  child  being  closed.  If  nothing 
is  felt  the  next  heavier  weight  is  tried  in  the 
same  way,  always  using  the  same  spot  on  the 
hand.  The  testing  is  continued  until  pressure 
is  distinctly  felt.  Several  trials  will  be  neces- 
sary, and  care  must  be  taken  that  the  weight 
is  held  steadily,  and  that  the  child  is  not  in- 
formed in  any  way  by  the  movements  of  the 
experimenter  when  the  weight  is  about  to  touch 
the  skin. 

Discriminative  sensibility  to  pressure  is 
tested  conveniently  by  cartridge  shells  loaded 
with  shot.  A  series  should  be  prepared  using 
100  grams  as  a  standard,  or  the  experiment  can 
be  made  with  two  test  weights,  the  weight  of 
the  variable  being  changed  by  adding  shot. 
Have  the  child  close  his  eyes  and  place  the 
standard  weight  upon  the  palm  of  his  hand. 
Remove  the  weight  and  test  with  a  weight 
heavier  by  an  imperceptible  amount,  and  so 
continue  until  a  weight  is  found  perceptibly 
different  from  the  standard  weight.  Care 
should  be  used  in  testing  to  vary  the  order  in 
wliicli  standard  and  tost  weights  are  presented. 

Discrimination  for  double  pressure  on  the 
skin  has  been  tested  for  various  purposes.  It 
has  been  widely  used  as  a  test  of  fatigue,  but 
is  now  somewhat  discredited  for  that  purpose. 


SENSES  AND  PERCEPTION  157 

Delicacy  of  discrimination  is  also  supposed  to 
be  correlated  with  intelligence.  For  testing 
for  double  pressure  sense,  a  special  form  of 
apparatus,  the  aesthesiometer,  is  used,  but  in 
want  of  that,  a  carpenter's  compass  will  do 
fairly  well.  The  object  of  the  experiment  is  to 
determine  how  far  apart  the  compass  points 
must  be  placed,  when  brought  simultaneously 
into  contact  with  the  skin,  if  they  are  to  be  felt 
as  two  points  rather  than  a  single  point.  The 
points  should  first  be  placed  close  together,  and 
the  wrist  of  the  child  touched,  care  being  taken 
that  the  two  points  touch  the  skin  exactly  si- 
multaneously. The  front  of  the  wrist  can  con- 
veniently be  used,  and  the  points  are  to  be 
placed  lengthwise  of  the  arm.  If  the  points 
are  not  felt  distinctly  as  two,  the  distance  is  to 
be  increased  by  small  amounts  until  a  point  is 
reached  at  which  correct  judgments  are  given  in 
about  three-fourths  of  the  trials.  The  distance 
at  which  the  points  are  then  apart  is  carefully 
measured  upon  a  millimeter  scale.  The  points 
can  then  be  placed  at  a  distance  apart  at  which 
they  are  certainly  felt  as  two,  and  the  child 
can  be  tested  again,  gradually  decreasing  the 
distance  until  there  begin  to  be  errors  in  about 
the  proportion  of  one  to  three  correct  judg- 
ments. The  two  records  should  nearly  coincide, 
and  the  average  can  be  taken  as  a  measure  of 
the  function  that  is  tested. 

The  accuracy  with  which  a  pressure  point  on 


158  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

the  skin  can  be  located  can  be  measured  thus :  — 
Have  the  child  close  the  eyes  and  touch  his 
wrist  firmly  with  the  point  of  a  pencil.  Ask 
him  to  touch  the  same  point  with  a  pencil  held 
in  the  other  hand.  Measure  with  a  millimeter 
scale  the  errors  that  are  made.  Twenty  or 
more  trials  should  be  made  and  the  average 
taken,  and  also  the  average  deviation  from  this 
distance  in  order  to  test  the  variability  of  the 
judgment.  In  testing,  if  the  child  is  not  satis- 
fied with  the  first  point  he  touches  he  should  be 
allowed  to  move  the  pencil. 

With  a  sharp  point  trace  a  line  firmly  on  the 
wrist  of  the  child  moving  the  point  as  slowly  as 
possible.  Measure  the  distance  the  point  must 
be  moved  before  the  child  can  tell  in  what  di- 
rection the  movement  was  made.  Several  trials 
are  to  be  made,  always  lengthwise  of  the  arm, 
but  changing  the  direction  frequently,  now  mov- 
ing from  elbow  to  wrist,  now  from  wrist  to 
elbow.  The  palm  of  the  hand  and  the  tip  of 
the  forefinger  can  also  be  tested. 

With  the  large  pressure  weights  and  the  same 
method  that  was  used  in  testing  discrimination 
for  pressure,  discriminative  sensibility  for 
lifted  weights  can  be  tested.  The  child  is  to 
lift  now  the  standard  now  the  test  weight  using 
the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  right  hand. 

Temperature  sense  can  be  experimented  upon 
roughly  as  follows:  Fill  a  jar  with  water 
that  feels  neither  warm  nor  cold.     Put  a  ther- 


SENSES  AND  PERCEPTION  159 

mometer  into  it  and  read  the  temperature. 
Fill  another  jar  with  water  of  the  same  temper- 
ature. The  first  jar  is  to  be  kept  at  the  stand- 
ard temperature  and  the  second  is  to  be  the 
variable,  being  gradually  increased  in  tempera- 
ture by  the  addition  of  water  of  higher  tempera- 
ture or  by  heating.  The  subject  is  tested  thus : 
He  first  puts  the  hand  into  the  standard  jar 
and  then  into  the  test  jar,  proceeding  as  in  other 
tests  of  discrimination  until  a  perceptible  dif- 
ference is  detected.  The  results  can  be  checked 
by  proceeding  from  the  clearly  perceived  dif- 
ference to  the  less  perceptible. 

Pain  sensation  is  usually  tested  by  the  algo- 
meter,  an  instrument  consisting  of  a  blunt  test- 
ing point  and  a  scale  which  registers  amount 
of  pressure.  The  temple  algometer  is  the  best. 
An  algometer  can  easily  be  constructed  by  any- 
one with  a  little  mechanical  skill.  In  testing, 
the  point  is  applied  to  the  temple  and  pressure 
is  exerted  until  the  subject  declares  that  the 
sensation  just  begins  to  be  painful.  If  a  num- 
ber of  trials  are  made  at  different  times  ac- 
curacy can  be  attained  in  measuring  individual 
differences.  Much  attention  has  been  given  by 
criminologists  to  the  study  of  the  pain  sense,  but 
there  is  so  much  uncertainty  in  interpreting  re- 
sults that  the  conclusions  from  these  studies 
are  not  likely  to  be  very  helpful  in  studying 
normal  cases.  Exceptional  cases  both  of  dull- 
ness  and  acuteness  of  pain  sense  should   be 


160  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

studied  with  regard  to  other  indications  of  ex- 
ceptional temperament  or  deficiency. 

Taste  sensations  can  be  tested  simply  by 
means  of  bitter,  sour,  salt,  and  sweet  solutions. 
The  best  substances  from  which  to  make  the 
test  material  appear  to  be  saccharin  for  the 
sweet,  phosphoric  acid  for  the  sour,  sodium 
chloride  for  the  salt,  quinine  sulphate  for  the 
bitter.  The  best  method  when  great  accuracy 
is  not  needed  is  to  put  into  a  burette  a  quantity 
of  a  strong  solution  of  known  strength  and  to 
drop  this  gradually  into  a  glass  containing  a 
considerable  quantity  of  water.  The  child  is 
first  to  taste  the  water  (which  should  be  dis- 
tilled) taking  as  much  as  can  be  held  in  a  small 
spoon,  and  putting  it  well  onto  the  tongue. 
Then  a  little  of  the  solution  is  to  be  added,  and 
the  water  tasted  again  —  and  so  on  until  the 
taste  is  clearly  recognized.  The  amount  of  the 
solution  that  has  been  used  can  be  read  from 
the  burette.  To  prevent  guessing,  the  child 
can  be  tested  with  water  and  the  test  solution 
alternately.  If  his  judgments  are  not  correct 
in  nearly  all  trials  he  must  be  tested  again  with 
a  stronger  solution.  Tests  can  be  made  with 
each  of  the  four  materials,  and  the  amount  of 
each  required  to  stimulate  taste  recorded.  The 
numerical  results  are  of  course  valuable  only 
for  comparison  of  individuals  tested  in  the 
same  way  under  exactly  the  same  conditions. 

Another  method  of  testing  taste  is  to  prepare 


SENSES  AND  PERCEPTION  161 

several  glasses,  each  containing  the  same 
amount  of  distilled  water,  and  to  add  from  a 
solution  of  known  strength  to  make  dilutions  of 
different  strengths,  graduated  from  one  that 
cannot  be  detected  by  the  keenest  taste  to  one 
that  can  clearly  be  recognized  by  all.  Tests  can 
be  made  as  in  the  previously  described  experi- 
ment. 

By  using  two  burettes  and  two  glasses  the 
least  differences  or  differential  sensibility  for 
taste  can  be  measured.  A  standard  solution 
of  medium  strength  should  be  used,  and  by  the 
method  of  gradation  the  increase  in  the  strength 
that  is  required  before  a  difference  can  be  no- 
ticed must  be  found.  The  mouth  should  be 
rinsed  with  water  after  each  test. 

Smell  can  be  tested  in  several  ways  but  re- 
sults are  not  likely  to  be  so  clear  as  in  experi- 
ments upon  taste.  The  least  stimulus  that  can 
be  sensed  and  the  least  difference  can  be  meas- 
ured by  means  of  the  olfactometer,  a  simple 
instrument  that  can  be  made  or  purchased. 

A  more  convenient  way  of  testing  smell  is  by 
means  of  solutions  of  graduated  strengths. 
Essence  of  clove  is  convenient  to  use  and  can 
be  made  by  adding  one  part  of  oil  of  cloves  to 
fifteen  parts  of  alcohol  (Sanford).  The  es- 
sence, mixed  in  various  proportions  with  water, 
will  make  the  proper  test  material.  Several 
bottles  should  be  prepared,  containing  a  graded 
series  of  strengths  of  the  solution.     The  sub- 


162  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

ject  is  requested  to  smell  these,  removing  the 
stoppers  one  at  a  time  and  passing  from  the 
weakest  solution  until  one  is  reached  that  can 
be  recognized.  Discriminative  sensibility  for 
smell  can  be  measured  by  the  gradation  method 
by  comparing  a  variable  test  solution  with  a 
standard. 

Though  such  experiments  on  the  senses  as 
have  been  described  in  this  chapter  and  the 
preceding  will  not  as  a  rule  issue  in  practical 
results,  so  far  as  numerical  records  are  con- 
cerned, exceptional  cases  of  dullness  or  acute- 
ness  of  senses  may  be  discovered,  and  all  such 
cases  should  be  studied  carefully  with  regard 
to  other  exceptional  traits.  Either  acuteness 
or  dullness  may  accompany  mental  deficiency. 
Defects  that  occur  in  one  sensory  sphere  are 
usually  due  to  local  causes  sometimes  insignifi- 
cant in  nature,  and  testing  of  the  senses  may 
lead  to  their  detection  and  removal. 

REFEREiNCES 

Literature  on  experimental  psychology  previously 
cited;  and  Wilson's  Bibliography  for  references  to 
touch,  pressure,  hearing,  rhythm,  smell,  taste,  tem- 
perature sense,  and  the  like. 


MEMORY  163 

XIII 

MECHANISM    OF    THE    MIND:       MEMORY 

The  senses  being  the  avenues  by  which  ex- 
perience is  accumulated,  some  insight  into  in- 
tellectual characteristics  of  individuals  should 
be  obtained  by  studying  them,  especially  in 
their  relation  to  each  other.  Other  informa- 
tion about  the  intellectual  traits  will  have  been 
obtained  by  the  study  of  those  impulses  toward 
the  development  of  intelligence  that  have  been 
called  characteristics  of  interest;  but  these  fac- 
tors do  not  constitute  all  the  variables  in  ele- 
mentary functions  that  underlie  intelligence; 
for  without  certain  other  functions  a  "  stream 
of  consciousness  "  could  not  be  built  up  at  all, 
and  experience  could  not  be  used  in  new  sit- 
uations. These  essentially  mechanical  func- 
tions of  the  mind  can  be  studied  under  two 
general  topics :  memory  and  association.  Mem- 
ory for  present  purposes  can  be  defined  as  the 
power  of  retaining  and  reproducing  impres- 
sions, and  association  as  the  power  of  connect- 
ing experiences  in  consciousness.  This  is  not 
very  satisfactory  psychology,  but  will  indicate 
the  traits  that  are  to  be  studied.  Memory,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  is  a  very  complex  function  or 
rather  several  functions  are  involved,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  must  be  considered  separately 
in    studying    individual    differences.     Memory 


164  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

power  varies  in  the  individual  with  the  kind 
of  material  that  is  presented  to  consciousness; 
the  memory  may  be  good  for  one  kind  of  mate- 
rial and  poor  for  another,  apparently  not  very 
different. 

In  studying  memory,  observations  can  first 
be  made  of  the  qualities  of  the  ordinary  work 
of  the  child  in  school,  for  in  school  the  memory 
functions  are  constantly  brought  into  use,  and 
can  easily  be  observed.  In  general  is  the  child 's 
memory  good  or  poor?  Is  it  better  in  some 
subjects  than  in  others,  or  for  some  kinds  of 
material  or  work  in  the  same  subject?  Com- 
pared with  other  aspects  of  the  child's  intelli- 
gence does  the  memory  appear  to  be  good  or 
poor?  Are  there  marked  peculiarities  in  the 
memory  habits  of  the  child,  such  as  unusual 
ability  in  rote  memory,  power  of  retention  for 
a  long  period,  unusual  rapidity  of  committing 
to  memory? 

Some  of  the  characteristics  that  can  be  no- 
ticed in  the  ordinary  work  of  the  child  can  be 
put  to  more  exact  test  by  simple  experiments. 
A  beginning  can  be  made  by  testing  the  so- 
called  pure  or  immediate  memory  for  simple 
auditory  or  visual  series  of  stimuli.  For  test- 
ing visual  memory  a  series  of  cards  should  be 
prepared  containing  digits  in  irregular  order. 
If  large  cards  are  used  and  care  is  taken  to 
present  them  in  good  light,  experiments  can 
be  made   upon   a   class.     Some   of  the  cards 


MEMORY  165 

should  contain  six,  some  seven,  and  up  to  twelve 
digits  in  a  line.  In  testing,  a  series  of  pre- 
liminary experiments  can  be  made  in  order  to 
discover  the  number  of  digits  that  can  be  re- 
produced nearly  but  not  entirely  correctly  by 
the  best  in  the  class.  A  long  series  can  then 
be  made  with  this  number.  In  testing,  the 
cards  are  shown  to  the  class  one  at  a  time,  about 
as  much  time  being  allowed  as  would  be  given 
to  a  slow  reading  of  the  same  number.  Five- 
second  periods  can  be  used  for  nine  digits, 
and  time  can  be  indicated  by  a  pendulum  or 
a  metronome.  The  card  is  then  covered  and 
the  children  must  write  immediately  what  they 
have  seen,  putting  the  digits  in  the  order  in 
which  they  appeared  on  the  card.  The  experi- 
ment is  of  course  but  an  approximate  test  of 
pure  visual  memory;  the  child  may  repeat  the 
digits  to  himself,  and  thus  motor  and  auditory 
elements  may  be  brought  in.  But  it  presents 
a  situation  in  which  visual  stimulation  predom- 
inates. 

To  examine  the  auditory  memory  a  similar 
method  is  used.  The  digits  are  read  slowly 
and  distinctly,  special  pains  being  taken  not  to 
group  the  sounds  rhythmically.  Immediately 
after  the  reading,  the  children  must  write  what 
they  have  heard.  In  this  case  also  the  stimulus 
is  not  pure;  the  child  may  visualize  as  he  lis- 
tens, and  repeat  to  himself,  thus  bringing  in 
secondary  motor  and  visual  elements. 


16G  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

Care  should  be  taken  in  performing  these 
experiments  to  make  conditions  uniform  for 
all  children  that  are  tested,  and  for  each  series. 
Besides  accurate  timing  and  uniformity  in  the 
manner  of  presenting  the  stimulus,  attention 
should  be  called  at  a  fixed  time  before  the  stim- 
ulus is  to  be  presented.  In  computing  results 
the  number  of  digits  that  are  correctly  given 
in  the  right  order  is  counted.  The  papers 
should  be  inspected  also  for  the  purpose  of 
detecting  qualities  of  the  work  that  are  not 
exjiressed  in  the  numerical  result,  and  for  ex- 
ceptional cases.  Ability  to  memorize,  tested  in 
this  way,  will  be  likely  to  show  relation  to  the 
general  intelligence  of  the  child,  but  possibly 
not  a  very  close  relation,  especially  among 
older  children.  Relatively  poor  memorizers 
may  be  found  among  bright  children,  and  some 
dull  children  will  be  likely  to  make  good  records 
in  the  memory  tests. 

The  amount  of  this  relationship  can  be 
studied  by  grading  the  pupils  in  a  series  with 
regard  to  record  in  the  memory  tests,  and  also 
grading  them  for  their  school  work  or  averages 
in  examinations  in  several  subjects.  The  posi- 
tion of  each  child  in  the  two  series  can  be  ob- 
served, mathematical  methods  such  as  described 
by  Spearman  can  be  api)lied  to  the  records  and 
the  degree  of  correlation  between  the  two 
records  can  be  calculated.    For  this,  more  than 


MEMORY  167 

one  series  of  tests  must  be  made,  and  if  possible 
two  sets  of  school  marks  should  be  used. 

Other  studies  of  memory  can  be  made  by 
using  words,  syllables,  and  letters  for  test  ma- 
terial. Lists  of  words  can  be  selected  repre- 
senting various  sense  departments  such  as 
words  of  color,  sound,  taste,  smell,  action,  A 
series  of  twenty  words  may  be  read  to  the  chil- 
dren and  after  a  short  interval  the  words  are 
to  be  written.  The  character  of  the  errors  and 
omissions  are  then  to  be  studied  in  order  to 
determine  the  relative  excellence  of  memory  for 
the  different  kinds  of  material. 

Individuals  apparently  differ  with  regard  to 
the  aspect  of  any  complicated  situation  to 
which  they  attend,  or  which  they  best  remem- 
ber ;  whether  its  content  as  such  or  its  form  or 
relations.  Stern  thinks  this  difference  one  of 
the  most  important  in  determining  intellectual 
types.  He  tests  this  habit  by  experiments  in 
memory  and  rhythm.  Three  series  of  tests  are 
made,  one  in  which  melodies  without  rhythm 
are  presented,  another  in  which  rhythm  with- 
out melody  is  used,  and  the  third  when  the  two 
are  combined. 

Other  methods  of  testing  memory  that  have 
been  used  for  practical  tests  in  school  will  be 
likely  to  show  a  closer  relation  to  the  abilities 
used  in  the  ordinary  school  task  than  the  records 
for  immediate  memory,  for  they  involve  a  test 


168  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

of  the  child's  power  to  learn  by  repetition.  A 
series  of  fifty  digits  is  prepared,  either  in  du- 
plicate on  paper,  or  written  on  a  blackboard 
and  kept  covered  until  used.  When  the  atten- 
tion of  the  children  is  well  aroused,  the  series  of 
digits  is  exposed  for  ten  seconds.  They  are 
then  covered  and  the  children  must  write  all 
they  can  remember,  placing  them  in  the  proper 
order.  The  digits  are  then  exposed  again  un- 
der the  same  conditions,  after  which  the 
children  must  again  write  all  they  can  re- 
member —  and  so  on  until  the  whole  list  is 
reproduced.  The  number  of  exposures  before 
the  list  is  completed  is  the  measure  that  is  re- 
quired. Copying  from  a  book  can  be  substi- 
tuted for  reproducing  the  digits.  The  child 
is  allowed  to  copy  as  he  pleases,  and  the  number 
of  the  references  to  the  copy  he  makes  is  ob- 
served. This  test  is  supposed  to  show  a  close 
relation  to  the  mental  ability  of  the  child  for 
school  tasks  in  general. 

A  modification  of  this  experiment  can  be 
made  as  follows:  —  A  series  of  twenty-five 
digits  is  exposed  as  before,  and  the  child  is 
allowed  time  to  read  them  twice.  He  is  then 
to  try  to  reproduce  the  series.  The  series  is 
then  again  exposed  as  before,  and  another  at- 
tempt made  to  reproduce  it.  The  tests  are  con- 
tinued until  the  child  has  repeated  the  whole 
series  accurately.  The  number  of  the  expo- 
sures is  recorded,  and  the  papers  are  studied 


MEMORY  169 

with  reference  to  the  characteristics  of  the 
child 's  learning  habits  that  they  exhibit. 

The  characteristics  of  the  child's  ability  to 
retain  impressions  can  now  be  investigated. 
Series  of  digits  may  be  memorized  by  the  child 
by  being  repeated  until  they  can  be  reproduced 
without  error.  Later  in  the  day  or  on  the  fol- 
lowing day,  the  children  are  to  write  the  series. 
The  number  that  are  retained,  and  the  nature 
of  the  errors  are  to  be  recorded.  The  reten- 
tiveness  can  also  be  measured  by  the  number 
of  repetitions  that  are  required  to  relearn  ma- 
terial after  it  has  been  partially  or  entirely 
forgotten.  Other  kinds  of  material  can  be 
used,  such  as  paragraphs  of  reading  matter, 
single  words,  sentences.  Different  qualities  of 
retentiveness  can  be  tested  by  varying  the  ma- 
terial thus:  matter  can  be  used  that  demands 
memorizing  of  separate  words,  or  again,  ma- 
terial in  which  interest  of  one  kind  or  another 
assists  in  the  memorizing.  Exact  numerical  es- 
timates of  memory  for  connected  matter  are 
somewhat  difficult  to  make,  but  usually  the  ma- 
terial can  be  divided  into  units  in  which  each 
unit  contains  a  separate  idea  or  phrase,  and 
the  number  of  these  units  that  are  correctly 
reproduced  counted. 

A  study  of  the  relation  between  immediate 
memory  and  power  of  retentiveness  can  be 
made  by  the  method  used  by  Sharp,  which  is  as 
follows :     Seven  disconnected  words  are  read  to 


170  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

the  subjects  at  the  rate  of  two  each  second. 
Immediately  after  the  reading  the  subjects  are 
to  write  the  words.  Seven  series  of  seven 
words  each  are  given  in  this  way.  After  the 
last  series  is  written  the  papers  are  removed, 
and  the  children  are  then  to  write  from  mem- 
ory all  the  words  of  the  whole  series  they  can 
remember  and  in  the  order  in  which  they  were 
given. 

For  examining  retentiveness  for  still  longer 
periods  questions  can  be  asked  about  the  school 
work  of  the  preceding  year.  The  number  of 
titles  from  last  year's  reading  books  that  can 
be  recalled  will  serve  as  an  indication  of  reten- 
tiveness for  long  periods.  This  method  can 
be  used  for  determining  memory  for  different 
kinds  of  material;  such  as  memory  for  dates, 
for  verse,  for  description,  for  scientific  expla- 
nation. These  methods  differ  from  the  ordi- 
nary examination  of  the  school  not  so  much  in 
their  subject  matter  as  in  the  point  of  view 
taken.  The  school  examination  tests  for  the 
memory  of  particular  facts,  but  in  the  psycho- 
logical examination  the  particular  material  that 
is  used  for  a  test  stands  for  a  type  of  subject 
matter,  and  the  purpose  is  to  examine  the 
child's  general  ability  with  regard  to  material 
of  this  class.  Other  differences  in  habit  of 
memory  will  be  brought  out  in  the  study  of 
the  mechanism  of  mind  as  an  associative  pro- 
cess. 


ASSOCIATION  171 

REFERENCES 

Bibliography  and  works  on  experimental  psychology 
mentioned  in  previous  chapters  should  be  consulted 
for  references  to  present  topics.  Chapters  in  some 
textbook  on  general  psychology  should  be  read.  Texts 
by  James,  Royce,  Baldwin,  Angell,  Thorndike,  Judd, 
can  be  recommended. 


XIV 

MECHANISM    OF    THE    MIND:       ASSOCIATION 

Association  of  ideas  like  memory  is  a  name 
for  a  complicated  process,  one  therefore  which 
is  variable  in  many  ways.  Just  what  the  fun- 
damental variables  of  the  process  are  is  not 
yet  entirely  clear.  In  studying  differences  in 
association  among  individuals,  we  wish  to  ex- 
amine the  manner  in  which  sequences  take 
place  in  the  mind,  under  the  simplest  condi- 
tions, for  differences  in  the  mechanical  func- 
tions of  the  mind  must  be  supposed  to  underlie 
types  of  intellectual  ability. 

For  an  introductory  experiment  upon  associ- 
ation a  test  can  be  made  upon  a  class  of  chil- 
dren. Lists  of  common  words  can  be  prepared, 
25  in  each  list.  The  first  should  contain  names 
of  objects  frequently  used  or  observed ;  the  sec- 
ond may  contain  action  words,  and  the  third 
adjectives  in  common  use.     The  words  are  to 


172  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

be  pronounced  one  at  a  time,  and  the  children 
are  to  write  after  each  word  is  pronounced  the 
first  word  that  comes  to  the  mind.  The  reac- 
tions are  then  to  be  studied  comparatively. 
Several  types  will  probably  be  found,  and  many 
interesting  variations  of  several  qualities  of 
the  associative  process  if  a  sufficiently  large 
number  of  children  are  tested.  The  most  char- 
acteristic response  will  be  with  words  that  ex- 
press frequent  and  commonplace  experiences. 
There  will  be  pronounced  differences  in  the  kind 
of  reaction  that  is  most  frequent,  whether  by 
words  describing  action,  qualities,  substances, 
relations.  In  some  cases  there  will  be  a  rela- 
tively large  number  of  words  describing  recent 
or  present  experiences,  and  in  others  vivid  or 
striking  experiences  or  those  of  a  personal  or 
emotional  nature  will  be  conspicuous.  Varia- 
tions in  other  traits  of  association  will  be  ex- 
hibited. In  some  cases  there  will  be  relatively 
a  greater  number  of  reactions  that  show  that 
the  thought  first  suggested  by  the  word  remains 
clearly  in  the  mind ;  the  reactions  will  be  terms 
describing  the  object,  or  parts  of  it,  or  its 
qualities  or  use,  or  possibly  naming  some  ob- 
ject that  belongs  to  the  same  class,  or  some 
larger  class  to  which  the  object  itself  belongs. 
In  other  cases  the  tendency  will  be  to  pass  from 
the  object  given  to  some  other  different  object 
as  a  whole.  In  these  cases  the  connection  may 
be  obscure,  showing  looser  association,  or  pos- 


ASSOCIATION  173 

sibly  a  greater  amount  of  content  in  the  mind. 

In  studying  the  results  of  the  association 
test,  although  it  may  be  difficult  to  make  nu- 
merical estimates  of  the  characteristics  that 
are  involved,  some  estimate  should  be  made  of 
the  amount  of  influence  of  recency,  vividness, 
and  frequency  in  determining  the  association, 
and  also  the  prevailing  form  of  connection: 
whether  by  similarity,  when  there  is  usually  a 
passage  from  one  object  to  another  as  a  whole, 
or  by  contiguity,  in  which  the  response  is  a 
word  that  describes  or  refers  to  some  other 
part  of  the  same  scene  or  object.  It  is  not 
always  possible  to  decide  upon  the  nature  of 
the  association  from  the  word  that  is  given, 
but  if  a  sufficiently  large  number  of  reactions 
are  taken  one  cannot  fail  to  discover  something 
about  the  prevailing  reaction  habits  of  the 
mind. 

Other  differences  in  associative  habits  can  be 
discovered  by  repeating  the  association  tests 
several  times  at  intervals  of  several  days,  using 
the  same  list  of  words  each  time.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  suggest  an  effort  to  recall  the 
previous  reactions.  Children  of  the  same  age 
will  be  found  to  differ  greatly  with  regard  to 
the  amount  of  repetition  that  will  be  found  on 
examining  their  successive  reactions.  Some 
will  respond  with  a  majority  of  the  old  words ; 
in  other  cases  an  almost  entirely  new  list  is 
likely  to  be  written.    For  a  quantitative  meas- 


174  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

ure  of  the  variability  the  number  of  words  that 
are  different  from  the  words  of  the  first  list  can 
be  counted. 

Another  method  of  testing  association  that 
will  be  found  helpful  in  studying  small  children 
is  as  follows;  —  About  fifty  small  objects  are 
placed  together  on  a  table  in  a  definite  order. 
Among  them  are  round,  spherical,  cylindrical, 
conical,  circular,  and  irregularly  round  objects ; 
there  are  several  of  the  same  general  color  but 
of  different  shades  or  tones,  and  some  of  other 
colors.  Besides  these,  other  groupings  should 
be  provided  for  such  as  objects  serving  some 
use :  for  example,  toilet  articles,  articles  belong- 
ing to  the  table,  or  objects  connected  with  a 
Christmas  scene.  The  following  objects  were 
used  in  a  series  of  experiments  made  by  the 
method :  —  Apple,  red  rose,  peach,  marble,  card 
with  Christmas  scene  drawn  on  it,  a  small  piece 
of  wood,  plain  white  card,  knife,  blue  paper, 
red  sealing  wax,  seal  to  stamp  letters,  ball,  card 
containing  circle,  picture  of  tea-kettle,  round 
piece  of  wood,  spool  of  cotton,  tinsel,  piece  of 
pith,  sandpaper,  spool  of  red  thread,  red  cloth, 
red  paper,  some  pieces  of  variously  colored  cloth 
pinned  together,  a  stone,  small  bottle  contain- 
ing vinegar,  pencil,  piece  of  candy,  string  of 
popcorn,  cubical  block  of  wood,  small  doll 
dressed  in  red,  orange,  picture  card,  button, 
sachet  powder,  nut,  skein  of  red  silk,  glass, 
piece  of  lead,  bottle  of  cologne,  and  the  fol- 


ASSOCIATION  175 

lowing  words  printed  upon  cards  —  cider,  ice, 
violet,  earth,  teaset,  pansy,  Santa  Claus. 

In  testing,  the  children  are  brought  one  at  a 
time.  The  experimenter  selects  a  round  object, 
for  example  an  apple,  from  the  table,  and  gives 
it  to  the  child  with  the  direction  to  place  it 
aside  on  the  table  and  then  to  put  with  the 
apple  all  the  objects  that  he  sees  on  the  table 
which  he  thinks  ought  to  go  with  it.  He  is  al- 
lowed to  take  all  the  time  he  needs  to  satisfy 
himself  that  he  has  selected  all  that  properly 
go  with  the  apple. 

Several  varieties  of  reaction  will  be  found. 
Some  children  will  select  only  spherical  objects ; 
others  will  select  round  objects  but  according 
to  a  broader  concept,  including  objects  that  are 
irregularly  round.  Others  still  will  select  ac- 
cording to  two  or  more  concepts.  Another 
type  of  reaction  is  that  in  which  the  child  tries 
to  construct  a  story  or  scene.  Some  will  asso- 
ciate by  individual  resemblances  and  find  a 
likeness  in  some  particular  between  the  test 
object  and  all  the  other  objects  on  the  table. 
The  younger  children  tend  to  select  according 
to  a  single  resemblance  such  as  roundness,  or 
redness;  those  a  little  older  more  frequently 
use  two  or  more  concepts,  and  the  oldest  chil- 
dren in  a  group  will  be  likely  to  react  by  in- 
dividual comparison  or  several  distinct  resem- 
blances will  be  kept  in  mind  at  once.  Reactions 
appear  to  belong  to  two  types,  irrespective  of 


176  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

age.  The  bright,  nervous  child  of  any  age  is 
more  likely  to  use  the  mixed  reaction;  another 
mental  type  is  more  prone  to  the  single  con- 
cept reaction. 

Variations  of  the  association  experiment  can 
be  made  by  having  children  write  lists  of  words 
as  rapidly  as  possible.  They  can  be  asked  to 
write  twenty-five  nouns,  or  twenty-five  adjec- 
tives, putting  down  the  first  that  come  to  the 
mind.  Or  they  may  be  asked  to  write  senten- 
ces, or  to  finish  sentences  half  of  whichi  are  read 
to  them.  Another  experiment  is  writing  of  re- 
cent memories.  The  children  can  be  asked  to 
write  about  ten  events  that  have  transpired 
during  the  day.  In  all  such  products  of  the 
child's  mind  the  same  fundamental  differences 
that  were  observed  in  other  association  tests 
are  likely  to  be  seen. 

Association  time,  or  the  rapidity  of  the  pass- 
ing of  the  mind  from  one  state  to  another,  has 
been  studied  minutely,  especially  in  the  early 
period  of  experimental  psychology.  The  usual 
method  of  testing  is  to  measure  the  time  that 
elapses  between  the  pronouncing  of  a  stimulus 
word,  and  the  reaction  word  that  is  given  by 
the  subject.  In  testing  children  a  word  can 
be  given  and  the  children  allowed  a  minute  in 
which  to  write  as  rapidly  as  possible  all  the 
words  that  the  given  word  makes  them  think 
of.    Another  method  is  to  take  the  whole  time 


ASSOCIATION  177 

of  association,  using  twenty  words.  The  ex- 
perimenter pronounces  the  words  one  at  a  time, 
giving  the  new  word  immediately  after  the  child 
delivers  his  reaction.  The  time  of  the  whole 
series  can  be  taken  accurately  enough  with  an 
ordinary  watch.  Methods  of  measuring  single 
reactions  require  apparatus,  and  for  experi- 
ments upon  differences  will  not  be  likely  to 
yield  better  results  than  the  more  simple  meth- 
ods that  have  been  described. 

Rapidity  of  other  mental  processes  that  are 
largely  mechanical  in  nature  can  be  tested  also. 
Such  a  process  as  adding,  after  it  has  been  well 
practiced,  is  largely  automatic  in  character,  and 
the  rapidity  with  which  it  can  be  performed  is 
a  good  measure  of  the  rapidity  of  mental  pro- 
cesses. Sheets  of  paper  containing  sixteen 
columns  of  digits,  twenty-five  in  each  column, 
can  be  prepared.  Have  the  child  add  for  three 
minutes  putting  down  the  result  at  the  foot  of 
each  column.  The  method  can  be  used  also  in 
testing  mental  fatigue,  and  also  for  experiments 
upon  mental  tempo,  and  the  relation  of  maximal 
to  preferred  rate  of  action.  In  testing  for  men- 
tal tempo  a  series  of  preliminary  experiments 
should  be  made  without  suggesting  speed,  but 
simply  asking  the  children  to  add  the  columns 
of  digits.  Later,  experiments  can  be  made  for 
comparison  in  which  the  greatest  possible  speed 
is  demanded.    In  all  the  tests  quality  as  well 


178  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

as  quantity  must  be  observed.  Types  such  as 
rapid-accurate,  rapid-inaccurate,  slow-accurate, 
and  slow-inaccurate  will  be  found. 

In  testing  for  fatigue  by  tliis  method  work  at 
greatest  sj^eed  should  be  done  for  five  minutes, 
and  the  point  that  is  reached  at  the  end  of  each 
minute  indicated.  The  quantity  and  quality 
for  each  period  should  then  be  estimated.  Fa- 
tigue as  it  is  measured  by  such  a  method  is  the 
result  of  several  factors :  warming  up,  effect  of 
practice,  will  attitudes,  affect  the  result  as  well 
as  actual  fatigue  of  the  neural  processes  that 
are  engaged  in  the  work. 

EEFERENCES 

Works  on  Experimental  Psychology  previously  men- 
tioned. 


XV 

FREE   ACTIVITY   OF   THE   MIND 

In  the  preceding  chapters  some  of  the  differ- 
ences in  the  mechanism  of  the  mind  were  studied. 
The  product  of  the  functions  of  impression- 
receiving,  retention,  combination,  and  repro- 
duction, is  a  mental  content  that  gradually 
from  infancy  on  becomes  more  complex,  and 
more  and  more  an  organized  stream  of  con- 
sciousness. Not  only  in  actual  experience  do 
individuals  differ  in  their  streams  of  conscious- 


FREE  MENTAL  ACTIVITY  179 

ness,  but  in  many  other  characteristics,  such 
as  volume,  rapidity  of  movement,  richness  of 
connection,  clearness  of  imagery,  predominance 
of  one  or  another  form  of  imagery,  and  in  many 
other  ways  differentiation  into  types  and  va- 
rieties appears.  Some  of  the  underlying  fac- 
tors of  these  differences  have  already  been  con- 
sidered; now  the  results  as  they  appear  in  the 
actual  content  of  mind  are  to  be  noticed.  Mind 
as  we  know  it  and  use  it  in  the  practical  business 
of  life  is  a  result  of  disciplining  the  free  activity 
of  consciousness,  and  choosing  from  an  excess 
of  partially  coordinated  elements  those  combi- 
nations that  apply  best  to  practical  situations. 
Children  can  be  studied  with  special  refer- 
ence to  the  free  activity  of  mind.  In  general 
do  the  activities  of  the  child  under  observation 
indicate  richness  and  variety  of  mental  con- 
tent, rapidity  of  mental  action,  flexibility  of 
connections,  or  the  opposite  characteristics?  A 
simple  test  of  mental  content  can  be  made  by 
asking  children  to  think  for  two  or  three  minutes 
about  some  familiar  interesting  object  or  scenes 
in  which  free  play  of  the  mind  will  be  stimu- 
lated; such  as  a  walk  home  from  school,  or  a 
holiday.  They  are  then  asked  to  write  all  they 
can  remember  of  what  has  been  in  the  mind. 
More  can  be  learned  by  questioning  the  child 
but  the  written  report  will  show  something 
about  the  individual  differences  in  quantity  and 
flexibility  of  mental  content.     By  questioning 


180  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

the  child  some  information  about  the  vividness 
of  his  mental  imagery  can  be  obtained,  the  ex- 
tent to  which  details  enter  into  imagery,  the 
predominance  of  one  or  another  of  the  sensory 
forms,  as  visual,  auditory,  or  motor  images, 
and  emotional  content. 

Another  experiment  which  will  give  similar 
results  can  be  tried.  A  story  or  bit  of  descrip- 
tion can  be  read  to  the  children,  and  imme- 
diately afterward  they  are  requested  to  describe 
what  was  in  the  mind.  If  characters  appear  in 
the  story  whose  appearance  is  but  suggested 
or  left  to  the  imagination,  the  children  may  be 
requested  to  describe  in  detail  the  appearance 
of  the  persons  as  they  saw  them  in  mind. 

Other  information  can  be  gained  from  re- 
ports about  the  child's  dreams.  Description  of 
a  few  vivid  dreams  can  be  called  for,  and  chil- 
dren can  be  asked  to  tell  the  subjects  of  all 
the  dreams  they  can  recall.  Questions  can  be 
included  about  what  is  seen  just  before  going 
to  sleep.  These  experiences  differ  with  age, 
but  differences  among  individuals  will  be  found 
that  are  due  to  differences  in  mental  constitu- 
tion. Differences  in  the  emotional  background 
of  imaginative  activity  should  be  noticed  es- 
pecially; sometimes  in  such  tests  the  influence 
of  morbid  emotion  or  shock  can  be  detected, 
and  steps  taken  to  remove  it. 

Experiments  upon  the  traits  under  observa- 
tion can  be  continued  in  several  ways,    Chil- 


FREE  MENTAL  ACTIVITY  181 

dren  can  be  asked  to  describe  in  writing  an 
imaginary  animal,  one  they  have  never  seen, 
nor  read  about,  nor  heard  of.  The  quantity  of 
the  mental  activity  that  results  can  be  estimated 
by  counting  the  number  of  descriptive  units 
the  child  has  used  in  his  account.  Many  dif- 
ferences will  be  found.  Some  children  will  be 
unable  to  detach  the  mind  from  common  experi- 
ences. They  may  describe  some  common  ani- 
mal, or,  if  they  are  original  at  all,  the  originality 
consists  in  duplication  of  parts,  or  enlargement 
of  the  animal  as  a  whole,  or  in  selecting  parts 
from  several  animals.  Some  will  show  that  the 
creature  has  not  been  visualized  as  a  whole  by 
making  parts  mutually  contradictory,  by  de- 
scribing in  a  haphazard  order,  or  by  mention- 
ing but  a  few  detached  parts.  Others  will  show 
powers  of  imaginative  construction,  for  they 
will  depart  widely  from  common  experience, 
carrying  out  their  descriptions  consistently. 
(See  appendix  to  article  on  Reverie,  Pedagog- 
ical Seminary,  Vol,  5.) 

An  experiment  that  has  frequently  been  used 
in  testing  imagination  can  be  made  to  yield 
interesting  results  in  this  connection,  showing 
differences  among  individuals  in  the  use  of  sim- 
ilarity association.  A  drop  of  ink  is  put  onto 
the  center  of  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  another 
sheet  is  pressed  down  upon  it,  until  the  ink  is 
spread  out  irregularly.  The  child  is  then  asked 
to  write  the  names  of  all  the  objects  the  ink- 


182  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

spot  resembles,  in  the  order  in  which  they  oc- 
cur to  him.  A  class  experiment  can  be  con- 
ducted by  making  the  test  material  on  a  larger 
scale. 

Other  tests  of  the  traits  of  mind  that  are 
being  observed  can  be  made  as  follows :  —  Copy 
upon  the  blackboard  a  page  of  a  story  that  is 
unknown  to  the  children,  omitting  letters  and 
syllables,  making  what  is  called  a  mutilated 
text.  The  children  are  then  told  to  copy  the 
story  and  to  fill  in  the  missing  parts.  The  copy- 
ing is  to  be  done  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Both 
the  time  required  and  the  accuracy  or  sense 
with  which  the  work  is  done  are  to  be  noticed. 
The  mental  activity  required  in  this  test  can 
vary  from  ability  to  notice  the  omissions  to 
constructive  intelligence,  according  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  materials  used,  and  the  amount 
that  is  omitted.  Some  think  that  the  ability 
tested  in  filling  in  a  passage  in  which  there  is 
considerable  mutilation  is  closely  connected 
with  general  intelligence  for  school  work,  and 
that  the  differences  displayed  in  such  work  are 
central  to  differences  in  types  of  intelligence. 

The  same  ability  can  be  tested  in  another 
way  by  announcing  a  series  of  substantives,  and 
having  the  children  fill  in  connecting  words  to 
make  sense.  Or  words  can  be  given  and  the 
children  required  to  make  as  many  sentences 
as  possible  in  a  given  time  using  the  words. 
Three  nouns  or  three  verbs  can  be  given,  and 


FREE  MENTAL  ACTIVITY  183 

the  difficulty  of  the  test  depends  upon  the 
breadth  or  abstractness  of  the  thought  that 
must  be  constructed  in  order  to  contain  the 
ideas  that  are  presented. 

Other  aspects  of  the  free  activity  of  the  mind 
can  be  tested  in  various  ways.  An  interesting 
experiment  can  be  made  upon  the  child's  power 
and  habits  of  description.  A  picture  is  placed 
before  the  children  and  they  are  asked  to  write 
all  they  can  think  of  to  say  about  it.  A  picture 
that  is  complex  in  detail  and  contains  sugges- 
tions for  a  story  is  best  for  the  purpose.  Sev- 
eral types  of  reaction  are  likely  to  be  obtained; 
such  as  the  imaginative,  in  which  there  will 
be  a  story;  the  observing,  containing  descrip- 
tion of  details ;  the  emotional,  commenting  upon 
the  artistic  aspects  of  the  picture  or  the  emo- 
tions aroused  by  it;  the  informational,  which 
gives  information  about  the  picture,  or  the 
scenes  that  it  represents. 

Writing  of  an  original  story  about  some  sug- 
gested theme  can  be  tried.  A  subject  somewhat 
unusual  in  character  should  be  chosen :  a  story 
about  some  object  can  be  called  for,  as  a  book, 
pocketbook,  chair,  coat.  Eeactions  can  be  made 
more  uniform  and  somewhat  better  adapted 
to  the  purposes  of  comparative  study  if  a  part 
of  the  story  is  told  or  read  to  the  children,  and 
they  are  made  to  complete  it  in  a  way  that 
seems  best  to  them. 

Characteristics  of  the  child's  use  of  language 


184  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

should  be  observed  in  investigating  the  quali- 
ties of  his  stream  of  consciousness.  Expres- 
sions of  the  face  in  speaking,  and  gesticulation 
should  be  observed  as  indications  of  the  charac- 
ter of  the  mental  imagery,  and  other  qualities 
of  consciousness.  The  word  language  can  be 
studied  with  regard  to  its  fluency,  the  relative 
proportion  of  words  expressing  action,  quality, 
substance,  the  presence  of  vivid  and  emotional 
expression,  rapidity  of  speech,  richness  of  vo- 
cabulary. For  further  study  of  the  child's 
language,  typical  specimens  of  his  written  word 
can  be  studied  in  detail.  Topics  can  be  as- 
signed, such  as  description  of  a  well-known 
object,  or  narration  of  some  recent  experience. 
To  test  the  use  of  adjectives,  such  topics  as 
"  The  best  time  you  ever  had,"  or  "  The  worst 
time  you  ever  had,"  can  be  used.  Ability  to 
explain  can  be  tested  by  written  compositions 
on  "  How  to  play  baseball  " — or  some  other 
game.  Many  differences  in  characteristics  will 
be  found;  use  of  grammatical  form,  ability  to 
make  distinctions  in  meaning,  rhythmical  quali- 
ties of  language  all  vary,  and  all  in  part  indicate 
differences  in  the  mental  characteristics  that 
are  under  observation. 

For  making  a  numerical  study  of  the  child's 
vocabulary,  Kirkpatrick's  test  can  be  used.  It 
is  made  as  follows :  —  The  first  or  last  word  of 
each  sixth  page  of  a  dictionary  is  selected  (use 
Webster's    Academic    Dictionary,    645    pages. 


FREE  MENTAL  ACTIVITY  185 

containing  about  28,000  words).    Ask  the  child 
to  mark  +  each  word  of  which  he  knows  the 
meaning,  and  to  mark  —  each  word  of  which  he 
does  not  know  the  meaning,  and  to  mark  ?  each 
word  about  which  he  has  doubt.     By  "  under- 
standing the  meaning,"  it  can  be  explained  to 
the  child,  is  meant,  "  If  you  should  see  the  word 
in  a  sentence  would  you  be  obliged  to  look  in 
the  dictionary?  "    If,  in  addition,  the  child  is 
asked  to  make  sentences  containing  the  words, 
the  clearness  of  his  concepts  can  be  tested. 
From  tests  made  by  the  method,  Kirkpatrick 
estimated  the  size  of  vocabulary  of  children 
to  be  as  follows:  — Giade  II,  4480;  Grade  III, 
6620;  Grade  IV,  7020;  Grade  V,  7860;  Grade 
VI,  8700;  Grade  VII,  10,660;  Grade  VIII,  12,- 
000 ;  Grade  IX,  13,400.     High  School,  first  year, 
15,640;  second  year,  16,020;  third  year,  17,60g; 
fourth  year,  18,720.     The  average  for  Normal 
School   students   was   19,000,   and   for  college 
students  20,120.     There  was  no  constant  differ- 
ence due  to  sex.     (See  E.  A.  Kirkpatrick,  "  A 
Vocabulary  Test,"  Popular  Science  Monthly, 
Vol.  70.) 

REFERENCES 

Wilson's  Bibliography:  topics  Imagination,  Reverie, 
Dreams,  Imagery. 


186  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

XVI 

PURPOSIVE   THINKING 

Although  no  fixed  line  can  be  drawn  between 
free  activity  and  purposive  thinking,  for  the 
purposes  of  observation  and  experiment, the  dis- 
tinction can  be  made.  In  general,  intelligence 
can  be  defined  as  the  power  of  the  mind  to  adapt 
itself  to  new  conditions.  Whether  there  is  such 
a  function  as  general  intelligence  which  can  be 
put  to  exact  test  is  doubtful;  rather  it  seems 
that  intelligence  is  the  result  of  several  com- 
plex activities,  and  that  different  degrees  of 
intelligence  may  exist  side  by  side  in  the  same 
individual. 

For  present  purposes  it  is  not  necessary  to 
attempt  a  close  analysis  of  the  processes  that 
constitute  intelligence,  but  rather  to  observe 
the  various  kinds  of  action  to  which  the  terms 
"  intelligent  "  and  *'  unintelligent  "  are  ap- 
plied, and  to  study  differences  among  indi- 
viduals with  respect  to  these  actions.  The 
ordinary  exercises  of  the  school  do  not  test  in- 
telligence in  a  way  to  be  satisfactory  from  the 
psychological  point  of  view,  for  erudition  is,  by 
the  nature  of  the  case,  a  predominant  result  of 
the  school  training,  and  memory  is  brought  to 
the  front  rather  than  original  adaptation. 
Methods  of  testing  intelligence,  therefore,  are 
best  chosen  that  do  not  make  use  of  the  ordinary 


PURPOSIVE  THINKING  187 

school  content.  Several  kinds  of  situation  could 
be  singled  out  for  study.  Intelligence  of  one 
kind,  somewhat  different  from  other  forms  of 
intelligence  displayed  in  the  school,  seems  to  be 
required  for  parts  of  the  mathematical  work. 
Practical  tasks  that  require  modification  of 
previous  conduct  to  meet  a  somewhat  new  situ- 
ation appear  to  be  different  in  character  from 
mathematical  ability.  When  one  makes  rea- 
sonable inferences  from  observations,  or  applies 
analogy  in  drawing  conclusions,  still  other  fac- 
tors of  intelligence  appear.  Logical  thinking 
is  still  another  form  of  intelligent  mental  ac- 
tion, and  the  very  opposite  of  another  that  is 
usually  described  as  intuition. 

In  ordinary  practical  life,  and,  indeed,  in 
most  acts  of  thought,  thinking  is  not  of  a  pre- 
cise or  logical  nature,  but  every  individual  has 
certain  type-experiences  or  conclusions  that  ap- 
ply more  or  less  satisfactorily  to  the  situations 
in  which  he  finds  himself  usually  placed.  The 
intelligent  person,  other  things  being  equal,  is 
one  who  has  a  varied  assortment  of  these  type- 
experiences  from  which  to  choose.  Ability  to 
modify  these  reactions  to  fit  particular  condi- 
tions is  a  second  factor  of  intelligence.  If  acts 
of  intelligence  are  examined  more  closely,  many 
variable  traits  upon  which  the  larger  aspects 
of  the  mental  functions  that  have  been  described 
are  based,  will  be  discovered.  In  some  cases, 
the  power  of  holding  steadily  a  complex  mental 


188  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

image  seems  to  be  the  basis  of  intelligent  ac- 
tion, and  this  is  an  ability  that  varies  much 
among  individuals;  in  such  work  as  the  arith- 
metical problems  of  the  school,  this  ability 
counts  for  much.  Other  variables  are:  com- 
plexity of  association,  especially  associations  of 
similarity,  the  rapidity  with  which  associations 
are  aroused  in  the  mind,  the  quantity  of  mental 
content  that  is  aroused  when  a  new  situation 
appears. 

To  test  the  intelligence  of  an  individual,  then, 
is  no  simple  matter,  for  there  are  not  only 
several  variables,  but  the  intelligence  is  con- 
nected with  all  other  mental  functions  in  an 
intricate  way.  Before  beginning  experiment  or 
observation,  all  the  descriptive  terms  that  are 
commonly  applied  to  mental  ability  or  intelli- 
gence should  be  brought  together  and  carefully 
studied,  to  see  what  meanings  are  embedded 
in  them.  Individuals  can  then  be  observed  and 
marked  with  reference  to  these  terms.  The 
ability  in  each  school  subject,  as  shown  by  the 
marks  in  examination  and  class  work,  should 
be  ascertained.  The  opinion  of  several  ob- 
servers will  be  valuable,  and  if  each  will  arrange 
a  group  of  children  in  a  series,  with  regard 
to  what  seems  to  be  their  intelligence,  the  uni- 
formity of  the  ordinary  methods  of  judging 
individuals  can  be  determined.  One  may  then 
proceed  to  examine  intelligence  more  closely  in 
some  of  its  typical  expressions. 


PURPOSIVE  THINKING  189 

Some  of  the  characteristics  of  intelligence 
can  be  observed  in  the  child's  actions  in  the 
presence  of  a  practical  problem.  (An  experi- 
ment adapted  especially  to  young  children  will 
test  the  child's  method  of  search.  Thirty-six 
square  blank  cards  are  prepared  and  placed  in  a 
solid  square.  A  piece  of  colored  paper  is  then 
shown  to  the  child,  with  the  remark  that  it  is  to 
be  put  under  one  of  the  squares,  and  that  he  is 
to  find  it  by  taking  up  the  squares  one  at  a  time, 
putting  them  back  exactly  as  they  were.  The 
child's  method  of  search  is  then  observed,  and 
if  a  numbered  arrangement  of  the  cards  is  fixed 
upon,  the  procedure  can  be  precisely  recorded. 
Many  individual  differences  will  be  found.  In 
some  cases  the  search  will  be  entirely  a  matter 
of  trial  and  error,  the  child  apparently  not 
profiting  at  all  by  what  he  has  done,  but  de- 
pending entirely  upon  chance.  Others  will  pro- 
ceed with  some  reference  to  avoiding  working 
over  the  same  ground  twice,  and  some  will  adopt 
a  perfectly  ardered  search.  A  variation  is 
made  by  failing  to  put  the  paper  under  the  card 
(changing  the  form  of  statement  to  the  child), 
and  then  observing  the  process  by  which  the 
child  arrives  at  the  conclusion  (if  he  does)  that 
the  paper  is  not  under  any  of  the  cards. 

The  same  problem  can  be  put  in  the  form  of 
a  question,  to  which  all  the  children  in  a  class 
can  write  answers  at  once.  A  question  like  the 
following  can  be  used :  — 


190  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

*'  There  is  a  large  square  field,  covered  with 
tall  grass,  and  your  ball  is  lost  in  it.  You  did 
not  see  it  thrown,  and  you  have  no  knowledge 
as  to  what  part  of  the  field  it  is  in.  How  would 
you  go  about  finding  the  ball?  " 

Some  of  the  practical  problems  that  pre- 
sented themselves  to  primitive  man  can  be 
reproduced,  with  such  modifications  as  are 
necessary  to  bring  them  under  experimental 
conditions:  for  example,  the  problem  of  con- 
structing a  hammer  from  stone,  thong,  and 
stick  can  be  used.  A  smooth  piece  of  green 
wood,  a  long  twine,  and  a  thin  stone  of  suitable 
shape  are  provided,  and  a  knife.  Several  de- 
grees of  skill  will  probably  be  observed. 

For  studying  phases  of  the  intelligence  that 
are  brought  to  light  in  some  kinds  of  mathemat- 
ical work,  such  problems  as  the  following  can 
be  used.  They  can  be  presented  as  written 
exercises,  or  can  be  arranged  as  experiments. 

Two  men  come  to  a  deep  river,  which  they 
wish  to  cross.  They  find  two  boys  in  a  boat 
that  is  just  large  enough  to  hold  one  man  or 
two  boys.  Neither  men  nor  boys  can  swim. 
How  can  the  men  get  across  in  the  boat?  —  If 
the  problem  is  to  be  used  as  an  experiment, 
river,  boat,  men,  and  boys  can  be  represented 
by  objects,  and  the  child  is  requested  to  show 
how  the  men  can  be  taken  across.  The  ex- 
perimenter should  record  exactly  what  the  child 
does.     Children  as  young  as  nine  will  be  found. 


PURPOSIVE  THINKING  191 

who  will  give  clear  written  answers  to  this 
problem.  Although  intelligent  children  will  be 
found  who  will  be  confused  in  attempting  to 
solve  such  a  problem  mentally,  it  is  probable 
that  a  child  who  can  give  a  perfectly  clear 
answer  has  excellent  intelligence  of  a  kind  that 
is  used  in  some  phases  of  practical  thinking. 
Its  essential  factor  seems  to  be  the  ability  to 
hold  a  situation  in  mind  steadily  while  its  de- 
tails are  changed. 

Similar  abilities  are  required  in  solving  prob- 
lems of  a  type  represented  by  the  following :  — 

A  boy  goes  to  the  pump  with  two  pails,  one 
holding  three  quarts  and  the  other  five  quarts. 
How  can  he  measure  exactly  four  quarts  ?  —  If 
it  is  given  in  the  form  of  an  experiment,  the 
whole  procedure  of  the  child  should  be  recorded. 
Some  will  proceed  by  trial  and  error,  not  seem- 
ing to  profit  in  the  least  by  what  they  have 
already  done,  at  last,  perhaps,  happening  to 
hit  upon  the  right  method.  At  the  other  ex- 
treme are  those  who  think  the  whole  process 
through  before  they  begin  to  act. 

For  further  study  of  these  traits  of  intelli- 
gence many  forms  of  puzzle  are  adapted.  The 
puzzle  test  made  by  Lindley  (American  Journal 
of  Psychology,  1897J  can  be  used,  or  other  puz- 
zles of  this  type.  Usually  the  number  of  trials, 
or  the  time  taken  in  the  solution,  is  but  a  par- 
tial indication  of  the  intelligence  displayed. 
Everything  the  child  does  should  be  recorded. 


192  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

and  his  own  description  of  the  process  that  took 
place  in  his  mind  should  be  taken.  In  cases 
in  which  exact  quantitative  estimates  cannot  be 
made,  children  can  be  grouped  into  three  or 
more  classes,  according  to  the  degree  of  intel- 
ligence displayed.  If  two  or  three  observers 
grade  the  children  independently,  the  accuracy 
of  the  method  will  be  increased,  or  tested. 
/-Some  characteristics  of  the  child's  drawing 
from  objects  indicate  degree  of  mental  develop- 
ment or  intelligence.  An  experiment  per- 
formed by  Clark  can  be  used  as  a  class 
experiment.  An  apple  with  a  hat  pin  running 
through  it  is  placed  in  such  a  position  that  the 
pin  appears  to  enter  the  apple  at  a  distance 
from  the  edge.  The  children  are  directed  to 
draw  the  apple  and  pin  just  as  they  look. 
Three  types  of  reaction  will  be  found,  repre- 
senting three  stages  of  mental  development. 
The  lowest  form  of  reaction,  usually  predom- 
inating among  young  children,  is  a  circle  with  a 
line  passing  entirely  through  itj^  The  second 
stage  is  that  in  which  the  line^  is  shown  inter- 
rupted at  each  edge  of  the  circle.  The  third 
represents  the  figure  as  it  actually  appears,  the 
line  entering  the  circle  at  one  side,  and  meeting 
it  at  the  other. 

The  child's  conception  of  cause  and  effect, 
of  proof,  his  use  of  inference  and  analogy  can 
be  brought  to  test  in  many  ways.  Problems 
like  the  following  can  be  given  as  written  exer- 


PURPOSIVE  THINKING  193 

cises:  —  Are  you  sure  that  the  sun  will  rise 
to-morrow?  Why,  or  why  not?  Was  there 
ever  a  man  named  George  Washington?  How 
do  you  know?  What  makes  the  wind  blow? 
How  does  powder  make  a  shot  go?  W^hat 
makes  the  sky  blue?  How  does  your  mind 
make  your  legs  go?  What  makes  a  top  stop 
when  you  spin  it?  Why  do  dogs  dislike  cats? 
Of  course,  correct  answers  are  not  to  be  ex- 
pected to  such  questions,  but  the  manner  in 
which  the  child's  mind  attacks  the  problem 
will  reveal  characteristics  of  his  intelligence. 
V  Passing  now  to  processes  that  are  commonly 
'  regarded  as  essentially  rational  processes,  some 
simple  tests  can  be  made  that  will  bring  out 
the  traits  of  the  child's  reasoning.  Close  rea- 
soning involves  one  or  both  of  two  processes : 
(1)  The  discovery  of  similarity  of  behavior  or 
characteristic  among  a  number  of  objects  or 
qualities;  (2)  application  of  a  general  prin- 
ciple or  statement  to  particular  instances. 
Most  of  the  reasoning,  both  of  child  and  adult, 
is  but  incompletely  logical,  but  these  two  proc- 
esses will  be  found  in  the  most  rudimentary 
form  of  reasoning.  Test  questions  like  the  fol- 
lowing can  be  used :  — 

In  what  way  or  ways  are  the  following  ob- 
jects alike?  Ball,  apple,  orange,  marble,  the 
earth,  a  circle?  A  spoon,  a  cent,  a  piece  of 
glass,  a  wire,  a  watch?  A  pansy,  rose,  bluebird, 
robin,    sunflower,    tree?    A    spool    of    cotton 


194  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

thread,  needle,  cloth,  scissors,  pins,  thimble? 
A  i)ocketbook,  bag  of  popcorn,  apple,  doll 
candy,  orange? 

Other  similar  lists  can  be  prepared  contain- 
ing some  common  property  or  properties,  vary- 
ing in  difficulty  of  detection.  Both  the  quick- 
ness with  which  children  can  discover  the 
common  quality,  and  the  correctness  of  the  an- 
swers are  to  be  taken  into  account  in  estimating 
the  intelligence.  If  the  questions  are  given  as 
a  written  test,  marks  can  be  assigned  as  in  an 
ordinary  examination  paper. 

For  testing  ability  to  think  deductively  in 
logical  form,  test  questions  such  as  the  follow- 
ing can  be  used.  The  child  is  to  tell  whether 
the  statements  are  correct  or  incorrect  and  why : 

All  minerals  come  from  mines;  coal  comes 
from  a  mine,  so  coal  is  a  mineral. 

A  good  teacher  knows  all  about  the  subject 
he  teaches ;  my  teacher  knows  all  about  the  sub- 
ject he  teaches,  so  he  is  a  good  teacher. 

Almost  all  the  organs  of  the  body  have  some 
known  use;  the  spleen  is  one  of  the  organs  of 
the  body,  so  the  spleen  has  some  use. 

Every  city  contains  a  cathedral ;  Liverpool 
contains  no  cathedral,  so  Liverpool  is  not  a 
city. 

All  American  silver  coins  are  made  by  the 
government ;  a  dollar  is  a  silver  coin,  therefore 
all  silver  dollars  are  made  by  the  govorninont. 

All  people  that  pay  taxes  can  vote;  Indians 


PURPOSIVE  THINKING  195 

do  not  pay  taxes,  therefore  Indians  cannot  vote. 

Ability  to  distinguish  clearly  between  correct- 
ness of  statement  and  correctness  of  deduction 
will  be  found  lacking  in  young  children,  but  the 
manner  in  which  the  child  approaches  the  logi- 
cal problem  will  indicate  something  about  the 
stage  of  his  mental  development.  Other  ques- 
tions similar  in  nature,  more  simple  or  more 
difficult,  as  the  case  may  demand,  can  readily 
be  devised  by  the  experimenter.  Intelligence, 
it  must  be  remembered,  is  shown  quite  as  much 
by  the  nature  of  the  process  that  is  used  to 
arrive  at  truth,  as  by  the  correctness  of  an 
answer.  At  times  a  wrong  answer  may  indicate 
more  intelligence  than  a  correct  one. 

Although  these  tests  do  not  afford  means  of 
exact  quantitative  estimate  of  intelligence,  they 
will  show  several  of  the  most  fundamental 
characteristics  of  it.  Study  of  a  large  group  of 
children  in  such  ways  will  show  types  of  intelli- 
gence. A  variety  of  tests  applied  to  cases  of 
eccentricity  or  deficiency  of  mind  in  school  chil- 
dren will  often  detect  the  particular  function  or 
functions  in  which  the  deficiency  lies.  Children 
may  be  poor  in  arithmetic,  for  example,  from 
one  of  several  causes.  If  the  exact  nature  of 
the  defect  can  be  found,  special  training  can  be 
applied  at  that  point,  or  the  work  can  be  modi- 
fied in  such  a  way  as  to  allow  the  child  to  use 
other  factors  of  intelligence  which  he  may  pos- 
sess in  greater  degree.    If,  for  example,  there 


196  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

is  mental  confusion,  as  often  occurs,  on  account 
of  inability  to  maintain  images  steadily  m  mind, 
the  use  of  objective  aids  in  thinking  may  rem- 
edy the  difficulty. 

Systematic  study  of  the  language  of  the  child 
should  be  made  in  studying  the  intelligence. 
Usually,  subjects  for  composition  not  calling 
into  play  information  gained  in  the  school  will 
be  found  best.  Themes  for  argumentative 
writing  will  bring  out  some  characteristics  of 
the  child's  intelligence.  Such  themes  as  these 
can  be  assigned:  "Wliy  is  the  United  States 
a  better  country  in  which  to  live  than  Spain? 
Why  is  the  United  States  the  best  country  in 
which  to  live?  Or  why  is  it  not?  What  is  the 
most  useful  study  in  school?  Should  women 
be  allowed  to  vote?  The  manner  in  which  the 
child  constructs  arguments  should  be  observed, 
and  also  his  method  of  forming  sentences,  use  of 
words  and  grammatical  form. 

REFERENCES 

Experimental  methods  of  studying  intelligence  will 
be  found  in  some  of  the  treatises  on  Experimental 
Psychology  that  have  been  mentioned.  Under  head- 
ings, reasoning,  intelligence,  thought,  language,  men- 
tal development,  many  titles  will  be  found  in  Wilson's 
Bibliography. 

Binet's  Psychology  of  Reasoning  can  be  read. 

C.  Spearman :  General  Intelligence.  American 
Journal  of  Psychology,  April,  1904. 


PURPOSIVE  THINKING  197 

H.  P.  MacIMillan:  The  Diagnosis  of  Capabilities  of 
School  Children.  Proceedings  of  the  N.  E.  A.,  1904, 
pp.  738-744. 

H.  W.  Brown :  Some  Records  of  the  Thoughts  and 
Seasonings  of  Children.  Pedagogical  Seminary,  Vol. 
II,  358-396. 

J.  A.  Hancock:  Children's  Ability  to  Reason.  Ed- 
acational  Review,  Vol.  XII,  261-268. 


APPLICATION  AND  RESULTS  OF  INDL 
VIDUAL  STUDY 


A   STUDY   OF   TWO   CHILDREN" 

This  chapter  contains  the  results  of  a  study 
of  two  children,  twins,  by  methods  similar  to 
those  described  in  the  previous  outline.  Some- 
thing about  the  nature  of  the  questions  that 
arise  and  the  solutions  that  are  suggested  in 
the  actual  study  of  individuals  can  thus  be 
shown.  Even  when  the  factors  that  are  in- 
volved are  as  few  and  as  simple  as  can  be  found, 
the  study  of  individuals, with  regard  to  their  dif- 
ferences and  likenesses,  is  full  of  difficulty,  and 
problems  arise  to  which  only  tentative  answers 
can  be  given.  As  to  the  application  of  such  im- 
perfect knowledge  to  the  education  of  the  child, 
it  can  be  said  that,  in  any  case,  children  must 
be  educated,  and  in  the  way  of  understanding 
them  some  knowledge  is  better  than  none  at  all. 

The  study  was  made  during  the  summer  of 
1903.  The  subjects  are  two  boys,  Harold  and 
Earl,  nine  years  old.  Their  home  is  in  a  little 
fishing  village  on  the  coast  of  the  Bay  of 
Fundy.  Conditions  were  unusually  favorable, 
in  some  respects,  for  analyzing  and  describing 
the  traits  of  these  children,  and  for  obtaining 

201 


202  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

an  insight  into  the  causes  that  produced  the 
traits.  Environment  was  not  only  as  simple  as 
could  well  be  found,  but  it  was  identical  for  the 
two  children.  They  had  never  been  separated 
for  a  whole  day  at  a  time,  and  they  had  never 
been  further  than  a  few  miles  from  the  village. 
The  settlement  contained  the  simplest  elements 
of  social  life.  The  school  was  primitive,  its 
culture  material  consisting  of  a  prescribed 
course  of  texts.  The  children  had  read  but  lit- 
tle, and  the  books  to  which  they  had  access  were 
few.  Heredity  and  environment,  in  a  word, 
were  identical  for  the  two  children,  at  least  in 
all  their  gross  aspects.  Yet  it  is  easy  to  see 
how  differentiation  can  creep  in,  even  in  these 
simple  surroundings.  The  factors  that  shape 
the  lives  of  children  are  subtle.  Small  events 
sometimes  seem  to  lead  to  large  consequences. 
Slight  differences  in  interest  or  ability  may 
lead  to  selective  action  upon  the  environment 
on  the  part  of  the  organism,  and  tlie  environ- 
ment so  differentiated  reacts  to  multi])ly  and 
increase  the  oi-iginal  differences. 
/^Though  the  lives  of  these  two  children  had 
run  so  nearly  an  identical  course,  there  wns 
one  divergence  that  may  have  had  an  important 
influence  u]ion  their  differences.  Two  years 
previous  to  tlie  time  when  the  study  was  made, 
Fjarl  had  an  illness  that  was  diagnosed  by  the 
local  physician  as  brain  fever.     He  was  ill  four 


A  STUDY  OF  TWINS  203 

weeks,  made  a  good  recovery,  but  had  once 
since  had  a  slight  return  of  the  trouble,  and 
at  times  had  been  subject  to  headaches.  Dur- 
ing the  illness  he  suffered  greatly  from  sensi- 
tiveness to  light  and  sound,  and  it  was  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  house  quiet  and  dark.  The 
cause  of  the  illness,  the  mother  thinks,  was  sun- 
stroke or  over-heating.  Following  this  illness, 
there  was  a  loss  of  school  for  nearly  a  year, 
largely  on  account  of  headache  when  reading  or 
studying,  a  difficulty  that  was  still  present  at 
the  age  of  nine.  But  the  loss  of  the  time  at 
school,  occurring,  as  it  did,  at  the  age  of  seven, 
was  probably  of  less  significance  than  might  at 
first  be  thought,  for  the  school  house  was  next 
door  to  the  children's  home,  and  the  boys  were 
always  together  when  out  of  school.  The  pau- 
city of  the  school  content  must  also  be  taken 
into  consideration.  The  fact,  however,  that 
some  of  the  differences  of  the  children,  plain 
enough  at  the  age  of  nine,  were  first  noticed  by 
the  mother  after  the  illness  of  Earl  must  also 
be  recorded. 

The  children  are  so-called  identical  twins. 
Their  resemblance  was  so  close  that  neighbors 
who  had  known  them  all  their  lives  could  not 
distinguish  them.  A  teacher  was  troubled 
after  a  year's  acquaintance.  Even  the  mother 
could  with  difficulty  identify  them  at  a  distance, 
unless  they  were  directly  facing  her.     But  there 


N 


204  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

were  minor  marks,  as,  for  example,  in  the  distri- 
bution of  freckles,  that  made  identification  en- 
tirely certain  when  it  was  necessary. 

More  careful  and  detailed  observation  showed 
likenesses  and  differences  that  were  striking. 
The  color  of  the  hair,  its  degree  of  waviness, 
the  configuration  of  the  forehead  line  were 
alike  in  the  two  cases.  Both  children  had  the 
same  irregularly  shaped  pigmented  spots  about 
the  pupil  of  the  eye,  a  characteristic  believed 
to  be  so  variable  that  it  is  often  recorded  for 
purposes  of  identification  in  police  examina- 
tions. The  ears,  of  which  the  lobes  were  of 
uncommon  contour,  were  alike,  so  far  as  could 
be  detected  by  inspection.  Similarly  in  other 
marks  there  was  great  likeness. 

When  the  children  were  observed  directly  in 
full  face  there  was  close  similarity  and  yet 
plain  difference.  Earl's  complexion  appeared 
a  little  more  delicate.  The  cheeks  seemed  less 
full,  giving  the  appearance  of  greater  length  of 
the  face,  and  also  of  greater  width,  especially 
between  the  eyes.  The  features  seemed  a  little 
more  clear-cut,  the  eyes  larger,  and  wider  open. 
Small  as  these  differences  were,  they  were  dis- 
tinct. 

Seen  in  profile,  there  was  the  same  general 
similarity.  Earl's  features  appeared  a  little 
more  sharply  outlined,  or  better  developed, 
especially  the  nose.  The  head  appeared  longer, 
and  less  rectilinear  in  outline. 


A  STUDY  OF  TWINS  205 

Earl  was  taller  and  seemed  more  slender, 
especially  in  the  arms  and  chest.     The  shoul- 
ders were  more  sloping,  and  apparently  nar- 
rower.    Earl's   hand   was    thinner,   narrower, 
and  less  firm  in  texture.     The  lines  of  the  palm 
seemed  identical  in  the  two  cases,  so  far  as 
could  be  determined  by  inspection.     Measure- 
ments   confirmed    these    observations.     Earl's 
height  was  greater  by  three-eights  of  an  inch. 
The  circumference  of  the  upper  arm,  forearm, 
and  wrist   were   all  less   by   about  the   same 
amount.     Head     measurements     showed     the 
greater  length  and  less  width  of  Earl's  head, 
the  greater  length  of   the   face,   and  greater 
width  at  the  level  of  the  eyes.    Width  between 
the  pupils  of  the  eyes  was  also  greater  in  Earl. 
Differences  in  weight  were  insignificant.     Earl 
lost  a  little  during  the  summer   and  Harold 
gained.     Under  similar  circumstances,   Earl's 
pulse  was  always  slower  than  Harold's,  and  the 
heart  sounds  were  less  distinct.     Earl's  pulse 
was  slow  as  compared  with  the  usual  rate  for 
his    age;    Harold's    appeared    more    typical. 
Earl's  temperature  was  always  lower  than  Har- 
old's; all  of  these  facts  seeming  to  indicate  the 
greater  vitality  of  Harold.     But  the  mother's 
opinion  that  Earl  was  the  stronger  child  must 
be   taken   into    consideration.     Earl    appeared 
older  and  better  developed,  but  thus  far  less 
hardy  and  less  vigorous. 

Both  children  belonged  plainly  to  the  type 


206  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

called  the  motor  child.  On  casual  observation, 
they  appeared  alike  in  their  activities,  but  closer 
study  began  to  disclose  differences,  some  of 
them  striking. 

An  experiment  was  made  to  test  motor  ability. 
It  consisted  of  a  series  of  trials,  on  alternate 
days,  of  tossing  a  ball  at  a  target.  In  this  test 
Earl  was  both  inferior  and  also  more  variable 
in  his  records.  In  rapidity  of  making  a  move- 
ment Earl  proved  also  to  be  inferior.  A  long 
series  of  trials  at  making  short  marks  at  great- 
est speed  showed  this,  and  the  result  was  con- 
firmed by  other  experiments,  such  as  dealing 
a  pack  of  cards.  The  conclusion  that  was 
drawn  from  the  results  of  all  the  experiments 
of  this  character  that  were  made  was  that  Earl 
was  inferior,  both  in  speed  and  in  control  of 
voluntary  movement.  Effort  was  made,  by 
giving  rewards,  to  secure  the  best  work  of  the 
children,  but  there  was  no  way  of  entirely  elim- 
inating fluctuations  of  effort. 

So  far,  voluntary  movements  made  under 
experimental  conditions  have  been  observed. 
But  when  we  came  to  consider  movements  of 
free  activity,  other  differences  were  found.  In 
general,  Earl's  activity  showed  more  rapid  and 
freer  movement.  This  was  well  illustrated  by 
the  handwriting.  Earl's  was  more  rapid, 
more  irregular,  more  like  an  adult's.  Earl 
talked  more,  and  more  rapidly,  and  with  greater 
flexibility    of   movement   and    tone.     In   many 


A  STUDY  OF  TWINS  207 

other  characteristics  of  movement  traits  ap- 
peared that  seemed  to  be  related  to  or  based 
upon  those  that  have  been  mentioned.  For  ex- 
ample, in  running,  Earl  was  more  likely  to  start 
before  the  signal,  as  though  there  were  greater 
readiness  for  movement. 

The  characteristics  that  were  thought  to 
underlie  some  of  the  traits  that  have  just  been 
described  were  finally  put  to  test  by  experiment- 
ing upon  the  relation  of  maximal  to  preferred 
rate  of  movement.  The  movement  that  was 
chosen  was  flexing  and  extending  the  hand.  A 
series  of  trials  was  first  made  without  suggest- 
ing speed,  and  later  tests  were  made  to  test  the 
maximal  rate.  Although  no  differences  in  the 
latter  were  discovered  that  could  not  be  due 
to  errors  of  observation,  Earl's  free  movement 
was  decidedly  more  rapid.  This  seems  to  be 
in  correspondence  with  Earl's  greater  impul- 
siveness and  impatience.  In  running  he  was 
more  eager  to  get  to  the  starting  point,  or  at 
least  to  be  on  the  move  in  some  direction,  for 
he  was  also  more  likely  to  take  a  devious  way 
in  going,  showing,  as  did  other  actions,  a  ten- 
dency to  greater  amount  of  movement,  less 
definitely  directed,  less  perfectly  controlled,  and 
so  performed  with  greater  waste. 

In  school  Earl  made  more  unnecessary  move- 
ments. He  more  often  changed  his  position, 
and  more  often  assumed  awkward  attitudes. 
When  talking  or  paying  attention  he  made  more 


208  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

movements  of  face  and  body.  The  expression 
in  speaking  was  more  active;  there  was  more 
play  of  the  features.  There  was  a  greater  num- 
ber of  eye  movements ;  he  looked  more  animated 
and  brighter,  again  showing  the  greater  volume 
of  free  movement,  and  the  tendency  to  lack  of 
control. 

These  facts  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  though 
Earl  was  more  active  he  was  really  less  a 
motor  child;  for  Harold's  actions  were  more 
definite  and  under  better  control.  In  other 
words,  they  were  more  practical,  more  likely  to 
produce  results.  He  was  more  industrious,  and 
when  neighbors  wished  a  boy  to  do  errands, 
Harold  was  almost  always  selected.  He  was 
more  helpful  in  the  house,  more  often  seen  at 
work  in  his  father's  shop,  less  given  to  idle 
occupations. 

In  movements  that  required  strength  Earl 
fatigued  more  rapidly.  This  was  true  of  ac- 
tivities like  running,  holding  out  a  weight  at 
arm's  length,  and  in  smaller  movements,  as 
making  marks  for  periods  of  from  three  to  five 
minutes.  Earl's  fatigue  curve  in  the  last  men- 
tioned experiment  showed  greater  variability, 
and  indicated  greater  fluctuations  of  effort 
which,  however,  it  was  not  possible  to  distin- 
guish with  certainty  from  other  factors.  In 
larger  movements  physiological  evidence  of  fa- 
tigiie  was  greater  in  Earl.  After  running  the 
heart  recovered  less  quickly  its  normal  rhythm, 


A  STUDY  OF  TWINS  209 

and  breathing  was  more  affected.  Earl's  heart 
was  often  slowed  by  running  and  the  pulse 
slightly  diminished  in  volume.  This  is  not  an 
usual  effect  of  such  exercise  as  was  experi- 
mented upon,  and  although  there  was  certainly 
no  organic  disease,  and  no  pronounced  func- 
tional disturbance  of  any  kind,  the  nervous 
control  of  the  heart  was  less  perfect  in  Earl. 

There  were  occasions,  however,  when  Earl 
showed  greater  control  of  movement.  At  work 
that  he  particularly  liked,  as  work  in  the  hay- 
field,  he  was  decidedly  superior.  The  testi- 
mony of  those  who  had  often  observed  the  boys 
together  was  that  under  such  conditions  Earl 
could  do  twice  as  much  work.  He  had,  too,  cor- 
responding to  these  fits  of  activity,  periods  of 
listlessness  and  apparent  fatigue.  He  was  de- 
cidedly less  regular  in  his  expenditure  of  energy 
than  Harold. 

Some  of  these  facts  may  appear  to  give  con- 
flicting results,  but  when  they  are  considered 
all  together  these  contradictions  seem  to  dis- 
appear. In  the  case  of  Earl  there  is  a  greater 
quantity  of  natural  movement,  accompanied  by 
greater  profusion  of  automatic  or  secondary 
movement;  a  condition  that  makes  for  greater 
fatigue.  This  movement  was  carried  on  habitu- 
ally at  greater  tension,  and  at  rates  more  nearly 
the  maximal  than  in  the  case  of  Harold.  But 
it  was  likely  to  be  less  effective,  when  judged 
by  actual  results,  because  it  was  less  definitely 


210  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

directed  and  applied,  in  part  because  of  less 
precise  application  of  effort,  and  in  part,  it 
seemed,  because  of  actually  less  ability  to  con- 
trol movement  under  ordinary  stimulation. 
But  under  the  influence  of  unusual  stimulus, 
Earl's  nervous  system  appeared  to  be  aroused 
to  greater  power  than  Harold's  was  capable  of, 
apparently  both  as  to  quantity  and  quality  of 
work. 

Turning  now  to  more  purely  mental  qualities, 
other  differences  of  traits  will  be  found,  which 
in  part  throw  light  upon  the  facts  that  have 
already  been  discussed,  and  in  part  still 
further  complicate  the  problem.  As  to  morals, 
Earl  impressed  several  observers  as  being  not 
so  good  a  boy  as  Harold.  Among  these  ob- 
servers was  a  teacher  who  knew  the  children 
well.  But  a  difference  of  opinion  on  the  part 
of  the  mother  must  be  taken  into  account.  The 
teacher  said  that  Earl  was  less  likable,  not  so 
good-natured,  nor  so  polite;  that  he  cared  less 
about  doing  his  work  well.  Earl  was  more 
bold,  inclined  sometimes  to  impertinence  and 
argument.  He  was  less  obedient  and  less  de- 
pendable. The  mother  could  find  no  differences 
in  such  qualities  as  truthfulness  and  honesty, 
but  she  declared  that  Earl  was  better  tempered, 
that  he  took  things  less  seriously,  was  more 
sunny  and  laughing,  and  was  a  tease;  while 
Harold  was  likel}^  at  times  to  be  sulky,  sensi- 
tive, and  morose.     Some  of  these  differences 


A  STUDY  OF  TWINS  211 

were  certainly  striking.  Especially  as  regards 
teasing,  there  was  a  great  difference  between 
the  two  children. 

Earl's  greater  boldness  in  social  relations  was 
expressed  in  many  ways.  He  was  more  diffi- 
cult to  control  in  experiments;  he  more  fre- 
quently asked  for  favors  or  to  be  released  from 
obligations.  He  was  more  daring,  and  always 
the  leader  when  the  children  were  away  from 
home  together.  Earl  always  acted  as  spokes- 
man. He  answered  questions  habitually  that 
were  addressed  to  both.  He  frequently  intro- 
duced subjects  of  conversation.  He  seemed 
always  to  be  more  confident  of  himself  than 
Harold,  and  Harold  readily  admitted  the  su- 
periority of  Earl,  even  in  matters  in  which  it 
did  not  exist. 

Earl  appeared  less  sympathetic,  and  less  af- 
fectionate, less  frank,  both  at  home  and  in 
school.  He  did  generous  acts  less  frequently, 
and  more  often  acted  apparently  to  show  off. 
He  was  less  saving  of  money,  especially  of  any 
considerable  amount.  Earl  was  more  resource- 
ful in  mischief,  more  often  being  seen  with  one 
or  two  boys  apart,  with  evidence  of  planning 
mischief.  Harold  was  more  likely  to  be  seen  in 
a  larger  group.  Earl  was  subject  at  times  to 
peculiar  balky  spells,  in  which  he  refused  to 
obey  orders.  This  was  noticed  both  in  school 
and  in  the  experiments.  What  mental  state 
accompanied  them  was  never  determined.     In 


212  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

general,  in  all  the  characteristics  that  have  just 
been  mentioned,  Earl  seemed  more  mature  and 
more  independent. 

Harold  seemed  to  be  the  more  emotional 
child.  His  relatively  less  activity,  his  bashful- 
ness,  his  moodiness  at  home,  his  greater  sensi- 
tiveness, greater  docility,  his  reactions  to  praise 
and  blame,  all  indicated  this. 

In  qualities  of  interest  there  were  some  con- 
spicuous differences  in  the  midst  of  general 
similarity.  Harold  was  more  patient  and  per- 
sistent in  performing  tasks.  In  Earl  the 
competitive  spirit  seemed  better  developed. 
Harold  apparently  tried  harder  to  please,  and 
was  more  conscientious  in  his  work.  He 
appeared  to  regard  work  more  seriously, 
and  seemed  genuinely  pleased  at  praise,  which 
seemed  to  affect  Earl  less.  Harold  always 
appeared  willing  to  try,  but  he  seemed  never  to 
expect  to  do  very  well,  and  he  was  never  very 
persistent.  Earl  had  the  greater  capacity  for 
acting  with  enthusiasm,  and  also  the  enthusi- 
astic person's  fault  of  soon  exhausting  the 
momentum.  The  teacher  found,  in  general,  the 
same  traits  in  school  work  that  were  found  in 
other  activities.  Earl  was  more  impatient,  and 
always  in  haste  to  get  to  the  next  step.  Harold 
was  more  willing  to  "  rub  out  and  try  over." 
These  differences  appeared  on  examining  the 
copy  books  of  the  children,  made  during  the 
previous  year.    Earl's  careless,  hasty,  and  ir- 


A  STUDY  OF  TWINS  213 

regular  work  appeared  in  strong  contrast  to 
Harold's  neat  and  careful  writing.  Earl's 
writing  showed  the  swing  and  dash  of  an  older 
person's,  and  the  inattention  to  the  formation 
of  the  single  letter.  In  many  ways  Earl  showed 
his  unwillingness  or  inability  to  follow  the 
letter  of  instruction.  He  was  impatient  of  de- 
tail, disliked  dull  or  routine  occupations,  seemed 
often  to  be  in  a  hurry.  Earl  had  more  special 
interests  and  enthusiasms,  and  was  more  sub- 
ject to  spurts  in  effort.  In  school  he  was  inter- 
ested in  arithmetic  and  did  well  in  it,  much 
better  than  Harold,  but  he  did  but  indifferently 
in  other  subjects.  He  worked  well  at  anything 
that  was  easy  for  him.  Harold  worked  about 
equally  well  at  everything,  but  he  liked  best  the 
motor  occupations,  such  as  drawing  and  writing. 

Experiments  by  such  methods  as  reading  to 
the  children  while  they  tried  to  add  columns  of 
figures,  showed  that  Earl  was  more  easily 
distracted.  In  school  he  was  more  often  in- 
attentive, responded  more  readily  to  slight  dis- 
tractions, looked  up  more  frequently  from  his 
work  without  apparent  cause,  was  more  subject 
to  dreamy  states. 

Experimental  study  of  the  senses  and  percep- 
tion yielded,  for  the  most  part,  but  doubtful 
results.  Earl  was  apparently  superior  in 
rapidity  of  mental  processes.  He  perceived 
more  rapidly,  and  could  take  in  more  at  a  glance. 

Experiments  upon  literal  memory,  including 


214  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

repetition  of  both  visual  and  auditory  stimuli, 
showed  the  uinnistakable  inferiority  of  EarL 
His  ability  to  repeat  rules  and  definitions 
learned  in  school  during  the  previous  year  was 
much  less;  likewise  his  ability  to  reproduce  a 
paragraph  after  five  minutes'  study. 

In  rapidity  of  a  complex  mental  process  Earl 
was  superior.  This  was  shown  in  work  done 
in  several  experiments  made  for  other  purposes, 
and  was  also  separately  put  to  test,  by  the 
method  of  adding  columns  of  digits.  In  this 
Earl  was  nmch  superior. 

Several  methods  of  testing  association  were 
tried.  The  experiment  to  which  most  impor- 
tance was  attached  was  one  in  which  the  same 
series  of  twenty  words,  presented  by  the  single 
reaction  method,  was  used  on  six  occasions,  at 
irregular  intervals.  Earl's  reactions  were 
much  less  uniform;  that  is,  they  contained  fewer 
repetitions,  and  indicated  a  more  variable  men- 
tal process.  Earl's  associations  were,  as  a 
rule,  more  difficult  to  trace,  as  though  more  took 
place  between  the  stimulus  and  the  reaction. 
He  more  frequently  passed  from  one  object  as  a 
whole  to  another.  Harold  more  frequently  re- 
acted with  a  word  describing  some  quality  of  the 
object,  as  though  the  mental  imagery  were  more 
clear  and  more  stable  and  i>erhai)s  less  in  quan- 
tity. Attempts  to  follow  up  this  clue  by  having 
the  children  try  to  describe  their  mental  imag- 
erv  confirmed  this  view;  for,  although  Earl's 


A  STUDY  OF  TWINS  215 

powers  of  description  were  decidedly  greater 
than  Harold's,  he  could  give  a  less  clear  account 
of  his  images.  It  was  concluded  from  these 
introspections  that  Earl's  mental  content 
changed  more  rapidly  than  Harold's,  and  that 
images  were  more  complex,  but  less  clear.  In 
other  words,  the  mind  was  richer  in  content  and 
more  active.  It  was  noticed,  too,  that  recent 
experiences  and  objects  in  the  immediate  en- 
vironment were  more  frequent  causes  of  the 
reactions  of  Earl  than  of  Harold.  The  results 
of  these  experiments  were  corroborated  by 
others,  such  as  writing,  description  of  pictures, 
the  ink-spot  test,  drawing,  and  description  of  an 
imaginary  animal.  The  drawings  especially 
showed  characteristic  differences  though  they 
belonged  to  the  same  type.  Earl's  drawings 
were  more  complex,  had  more  ornamentation, 
were  larger  and  freer,  and  less  carefully  drawn. 
Many  aspects  of  general  intelligence  were  ob- 
served and  investigated.  Intelligence,  if  we 
mean  by  it  adaptation  to  new  conditions,  was 
greater  in  Earl  —  a  conclusion  that  agrees  with 
the  verdict  both  of  teacher  and  parents.  Ex- 
periments upon  practical  intelligence  gave  clear 
results.  Primitive  man's  problem  of  construct- 
ing a  hammer  from  thong,  stick,  and  stone  was 
presented.  The  result  was  much  in  favor  of 
Earl.  He  cut  the  stick  to  fit  smoothly  against 
the  side  of  the  stone,  made  a  loop  in  the  twine, 
put  the  stone  and  the   stick  together  loosely 


216  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

through  it  and  wound  the  remainder  of  the 
twine  coarsely  about,  making  a  fairly  well- 
jointed  hammer.  Harold  cut  a  groove  around 
the  stick,  and  tried  to  tie  the  stone  to  it  at  right 
angles  with  it.  Failing  in  this  he  tied  it,  letting 
the  stick  run  across  the  hammer  head  with  the 
result  that  he  made  a  loose  joining.  Neither 
of  the  children  thought  to  split  the  stick,  and 
insert  the  stone. 

Similar  experiments  were  tried  with  similar 
results.  Earl  was  unmistakably  more  resource- 
ful at  such  tasks.  He  suggested  more,  whether 
rightly  or  wrongly,  when  neither  could  dis- 
cover the  correct  solution. 

In  a  test  consisting  of  selecting  similar  ob- 
jects from  a  collection  in  which  there  were  sev- 
eral possible  classifications,  both  selected  to 
form  a  single  group,  round  objects,  but  Earl's 
concept  was  broader  than  Harold's.  He  in- 
cluded objects  of  doubtful  roundness  such  as  a 
match.  Harold  selected  only  spherical  objects. 
Attempts  to  carry  further  the  study  of  the  chil- 
dren's use  of  concepts  by  experiments  in  which 
they  were  asked  to  find  similarity  in  objects, 
and  to  name  objects  similar  to  those  presented, 
failed  to  bring  out  differences.  The  children 
were  not  sufficiently  developed  mentally  to  re- 
act fully  in  such  experiments.  Problems  to  test 
their  notion  of  proof,  of  cause  and  effect,  ap- 
preciation of  logical  form  all  failed,  partly  for 
the  same  reason.     At  least  no  differences  were 


A  STUDY  OF  TWINS  217 

found  that  had  not  already  been  discovered  by 
other  methods. 

With  the  experiments  upon  the  intelligence 
the  study  was  brought  to  a  close.  It  is  easy  to 
see  how  under  different  conditions  a  much  more 
thorough  diagnosis  of  the  characteristics  of 
these  children  could  be  made.  Many  more  ex- 
periments could  be  performed,  made  by  more 
refined  methods,  and  with  the  application  of 
better  psychological  analysis  than  was  at- 
tempted. But  even  so  rough  a  study  as  was 
made  brought  to  light  many  differences,  and 
seems  to  lead  to  several  conclusions.  The  dif- 
ferences that  were  discovered  do  not  seem  to 
be  entirely  unrelated,  but  in  many  cases  to  be 
dependent  upon  one  another  or  to  be  offshoots 
from  the  same  stem.  Other  differences  seem  to 
stand  apart  as  independent.  It  would  be  very 
interesting  to  know  to  what  extent  the  illness  of 
Earl  had  affected  his  characteristics.  It  is  pos- 
sible that  the  sensitizing  or  exhaustion  of  the 
nei'vous  system  incident  to  his  illness  has  left 
permanent  traces  that  appear  not  only  in  physi- 
cal characteristics  but  in  the  mental  action  as 
well.  This  cannot  be  proved  from  the  evidence, 
and  can  merely  be  suggested  as  a  possible  so- 
lution of  some  of  the  problems  that  are  raised. 
It  is  possible  on  the  other  hand  that  the  germs 
of  all  the  differences  existed  from  the  beginning 
and  that  they  have  merely  been  brought  out  by 
the  effect  of  environment. 


218  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

The  question  that  must  have  arisen  in  the 
mind  of  the  practical  reader,  as  to  what  peda- 
gogical conclusions  can  be  derived  from  such  a 
study  of  children,  must  be  considered.  Do  the 
differences  that  can  plainly  be  distinguished  in 
the  temperament  and  mental  habits  of  these 
children  indicate  a  need  of  differentiation  in  the 
manner  of  educating  or  controlling  them? 
Both  these  children  belong  to  a  normal  type; 
physically  there  are  no  pronounced  defects  or 
tendencies  to  disease ;  they  are  free  from  mental 
defect;  and  they  are  morally  good,  as  children 
go.  As  to  what  the  special  fitness  of  such  chil- 
dren for  life  work  may  be  the  study  certainly 
furnishes  but  little  if  any  evidence;  nor  would 
a  refinement  of  it  do  so.  Such  children  are 
probably  plastic  and  under  the  right  conditions 
can  be  made  efficient  in  any  one  of  several  per- 
haps rather  widely  different  occupations. 

The  most  marked  faults  of  these  children  ap- 
pear to  be  quite  opposite  in  the  two  cases. 
Earl's  haste  and  restlessness  under  routine 
tasks  amounts  to  a  fault  that  appears  deep- 
seated,  and  to  permeate  many  of  his  activities. 
Children  so  constituted  are  likely  to  lay  too 
slight  foundations,  later  in  life,  upon  which  to 
build  i)ra('ti('al  efficiency.  They  have  natni-al 
versatility,  but  are  likely  to  be  deficient  in  all 
matters  of  technique.  And  they  are  more  de- 
pendent than  the  stable  child  upon  circum- 
stances placing  them  where  their  enthusiasms 


A  STUDY  OF  TWINS  219 

will  be  stimulated.  Probably  this  fault  cannot 
entirely  be  eradicated  from  such  a  child ;  it  must 
be  watched,  and  controlled  by  providing  oppor- 
tunities for  the  child  to  follow  out  his  natural 
interests. 

In  the  other  case  the  fault  lies  in  the  opposite 
direction.  There  is  too  little  confidence  and 
perhaps  too  great  inclination  to  follow  the  letter 
of  instruction.  Such  children  do  well  in  many 
places  but  they  sometimes  lack  initiative. 
They  need  encouragement  to  depend  upon  their 
own  judgment,  and  to  appreciate  their  own 
work.  That  they  can  be  changed  into  the  type 
possessing  the  characteristics  which  they  lack 
seems  hopeless  to  expect,  even  if  it  were  desira- 
ble. One  of  the  lessons  to  be  learned  from  a 
study  of  temperament  is  at  least  to  know  what 
not  to  attempt. 

These  are  the  main  lines  upon  which  a  differ- 
ential pedagogy  of  such  children  would  work. 
Neither  child  is  an  extreme  example  of  the 
faults  or  virtues  which  he  typifies.  They  fall 
within  the  class  of  the  normal  safe  average; 
healthy,  normal,  bright  children,  rather  strongly 
motor  in  type  with  as  yet  neither  marked  abil- 
ities nor  great  faults. 

Galton's  study  of  twins  made  many  years  ago 
led  him  to  conclusions  that  are  interesting  and 
important  to  quote  in  this  connection.  He  made 
a  study  of  the  likenesses  and  differences  of 
twins,  and  found  that  the  most  conspicuous  dif- 


220  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

ferences  are  in  such  traits  as  sociability,  desire 
to  attract  attention,  truthfulness,  thoroughness, 
and  refinement.  Most  of  the  differences  in 
identical  twins  he  thinks  can  be  traced  to  dif- 
ferences in  energy  in  one  or  another  of  its 
protean  forms.  One  will  be  more  energetic, 
fearless,  vigorous;  the  other  gentle,  clinging, 
timid.  One  will  be  more  ardent,  the  other  calm 
and  placid ;  one  more  independent,  original,  and 
self-contained;  the  other  hasty,  generous,  viva- 
cious. The  native  factors  he  thinks  are  the  real 
causes  of  the  differences,  not  the  intercurrent 
causes,  to  which  the  differences  are  often  as- 
cribed by  parents. 

f'Binet's  suggestion  of  possible  correlation 
among  traits,  resulting  from  a  study  of  two 
children,  is  also  in  point  here.  He  finds  that 
the  most  conspicuous  difference  between  the 
children  he  studied  can  be  expressed  by  saying 
that  one  is  variable  and  the  other  stable.  With 
the  variable  type  go  idealistic  tendencies,  a  ten- 
dency to  be  unpractical,  mobile,  original,  inven- 
tive, capricious.  With  the  stable  temperament 
goes  a  tendency  to  be  practical,  reflective,  well- 
ordered,  conservative,  well-balanced,  uniform, 
regular,  exact.  He  does  not  conclude  however 
that  these  traits  are  necessarily  correlates. 


TYPES  OF  INDIVIDUALS  221 

n 

TYPES  OF   INDIVIDUALS 

It  must  soon  be  apparent  to  an  observer  of 
individuals  that,  though  the  factors  that  make 
^p_indi™lualJiX-^?^AO  jcomplex  an^^ 
^^^tligJLJ2!l--t^^  individnals  j2nTT_h^  alike^  yet 
there  are  certain  types  and  classes.  Such  stud- 
ies of  children  as  have  been  suggested  in  this 
outline  should  have  brought  to  light  several 
pronounced  types,  and  several  points  of  view 
from  which  individuals  can  be  classified.  These 
can  now  be  discussed  a  little  further. 

For  a  certain  practical  purpose  school  chil- 
I  dren  can  be  separated  into  two  groups ;  normal 
and  abnormal.  Some  children,  the  great  ma- 
jority perhaps,  impress  one  as  being  and  are 
proven  by  test  to  be  essentially  sound;  in 
morals,  intellect,  and  physical  constitution. 
They  may  not  be  brilliant,  nor  massive  physic- 
ally, nor  highly  spiritual,  but  there  is  a  nor- 
mality that  appears  in  every  trait,  a  harmony, 
it  can  be  said,  which  appeals  to  the  aesthetic 
sense.  These  children  are  likely  to  do  well 
under  all  ordinary  circumstances  of  life;  their 
success  does  not  appear  to  depend  upon  chance, 
or  a  happy  selection  of  environment. 

Into  another  class  can  be  placed  those  chil- 
dren, and  we  do  not  know  how  many  there  are, 
that  are  abnormal  or  exceptional.     Both  the 


222  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

types  that  are  included  under  this  class  seem 
to  depend  more  than  the  normal  upon  the  con- 
ditions in  which  they  are  placed,  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  are  trained,  for  their  success 
in  life. 

For  practical  purposes,  again,  the  subnormal 
children  can  be  separated  into  classes  accord- 
ing as  the  defects  are  physical,  intellectual, 
moral,  or  any  two  or  all  of  these.  The  most 
prevalent  type  appears  to  be  the  child  who, 
though  bright  enough  to  make  headway  in  the 
school,  and  free  from  serious  moral  defects,  is 
feeble  in  constitution,  or  afflicted  with  some 
diathesis  or  disease  that  limits  his  progress  as 
an  individual,  and  perhaps  endangers  his  off- 
spring. 

The  second  is  the  abnormally  dull.  There 
are  all  degrees  from  the  child  who  is  stupid  or 
confused  in  some  one  branch  of  school  work  to 
the  actually  feeble-minded. 

The  third  t3-pe  is  the  morally  deficient.  The 
most  hopeful  of  this  class  are  the  children  who 
are  bad  because  of  bad  environment.  Moral 
badness  can  be  produced  in  almost  any  child 
by  environment,  and  happily  can  be  corrected 
by  improvement  in  the  environment. 

Among  mixed  types  the  neurotic  bad  child, 
with  alcoholic  or  other  bad  nervous  heredity, 
and  with  physical  marks  of  degeneracy  is  the 
worst  school  typo  considered  personally,  so- 
cially, and  biologically. 


TYPES  OF  INDIVIDUALS  223 

The  child  above  the  usual  in  one  or  many 
characteristics  is  another  school  type  that  is 
frequently  found.  Excess  of  ability  or  eccen- 
tricity of  mental  constitution  may  not  be  often 
of  the  genius  order  but  in  many  cases  it  is 
sufficient  to  make  the  child  ill-adapted  to  the 
routine  of  the  school. 

Another  type  is  the  child  who  is  conspicuous 
for  some  peculiarity,  excess,  or  defect  in  the 
sphere  of  the  emotional  life.  There  may  or 
may  not  be  physical  defect. 

Other  schemes  of  classification  of  children 
for  the  practical  purposes  of  the  school  could 
be  adopted,  that  should  take  into  account  qual- 
ities like  ambition,  interests,  special  attainment 
or  ability,  mental  type  and  the  like.  Tempera- 
ment, emotional  characteristics,  and  various 
other  traits  can  be  used  for  classification  pur- 
poses, according  to  the  object  in  view.  Many  at- 
tempts have  been  made,  especially  by  French 
psychologists  to  classify  temperaments  and 
character?,  and  some  of  their  schemes  are 
valuable  as  guides  in  observing  children. 
The  most  nearly  complete  of  these  seems 
to  be  the  classification  plan  adopted  by  Ei- 
bot.  He  makes  first  a  distinction  between 
real  and  amorphous  characters.  Amorphous 
characters  are  those  in  which  hereditary  traits 
are  weak,  and  to  a  great  extent  determined  by 
environment.  They  have  no  distinctive  fea- 
tures nor  permanence.     The  real  characters  are 


224  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

divided  into  two  great  classes;  the  sensitive,  and 
the  active.  In  the  sensitive  character  feeling 
predominates;  in  the  active,  movement.  To 
these  two  classes  can  be  added  a  less  niimeroiis 
but  quite  distinct  class,  the  apathetic,  in  which 
both  feeling  and  action  are  less  than  normal, 
or  as  they  appear  in  the  great  majority  of 
X)eople.  This  character  is  not  plastic  like  the 
amorphous.  Possibly  another  character  needs 
a  special  designation,  the  balanced,  or  temper- 
ate, that  has  no  great  distinguishing  feature. 

Each  of  the  main  divisions  that  have  been 
described  Kibot  divides  into  species.  Thus 
there  are  three  divisions  of  the  sensitive  type; 
the  humble,  the  contemplative,  the  emotional. 
The  active  temperament  has  two  types;  the 
mediocre  in  which  mental  ability  is  small,  and 
the  great  active  in  which  there  is  great  mental 
ability.  The  apathetic  temperament  also  has 
two  types,  divided  according  to  mental  ability; 
first  the  pure  apathetic,  with  slight  sensibility, 
slight  activity,  slight  intelligence;  second,  the 
apathetic  with  a  powerful  intellect* 

Besides  these  pure  types,  as  they  might  be 
called,  Ribot  finds  various  mixed  types;  among 
them  the  sensitive-active  and  the  apathetic- 
sensitive.  There  must  be  distinguished  too 
what  might  be  called  substitutes  for  character, 
or  partial  characters  lliat  i-csult  from  some 
mental  aptitude  or  from  some  great  and  dom- 
inating emotion. 


TYPES  OF  INDIVIDUALS  225 

Many  other  classification  schemes  conld  be 
mentioned;  they  are  so  common  in  the  history 
of  character-study  that  it  would  be  impossible 
to  describe  them  all,  though  each  has  some- 
thing of  value. 

Perez  classifies  temperament  on  the  basis  of 
movements;  their  rapidity  and  energy.  His 
types  are  the  slow,  the  lively,  the  ardent ;  then, 
as  mixed  types,  the  lively-ardent,  the  slow-ar- 
dent, the  deliberate. 

Fouillee  attempts  to  classify  temperaments 
by  describing  them  in  terms  of  certain  physi- 
ological traits  which  he  thinks  underlie  them; 
that  is,  according  to  the  manner  in  which  ex- 
penditure and  restoration  of  energy  take  place 
in  the  nervous  system.  Volition  and  muscular 
action  are  predominantly  of  the  nature  of  ex- 
penditure; sensation  and  perception,  the  con- 
trary. The  two  types  are  the  sensitive  and 
the  active,  each  with  two  varieties,  for  in  the 
response  of  the  nerve  cells  there  are  two  funda- 
mental qualities,  quickness  and  intensity. 
Four  principle  classes  of  temperament  result: 
(1)  sensitives  with  quick  but  not  intense  activ- 
ity; (2)  sensitives  with  slow  but  intense  ac- 
tivity; (3)  actives  with  quick,  intense  action; 
(4)  actives  with  slow  and  moderate  action. 

Seeland,  a  Russian  writer  makes  still  another 
classification.  He  detects  a  hierarchy  of  char- 
acters passing  from  the  stronger  and  more 
normal  to  the  weaker  and  less  normal.    There 


226  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

are  three  classes:  strong,  medium,  and  weak, 
and  several  varieties  of  each.  Among  the 
strong  are  the  gay,  and  the  phlegmatic  or  calm ; 
and  under  the  gay  again  the  strong-sanguine, 
the  weak-sanguine,  and  the  serene,  everything 
depending  upon  the  way  in  which  the  nervous 
system  responds  to  internal  or  external  excita- 
tion. 

Two  more  recent  suggestions  for  a  classifica- 
tion of  temperaments  and  mental  types  can  be 
mentioned ;  both  have  already  been  referred  to 
in  another  connection.  Binet  finds  in  studying 
intellectual  processes,  types  that  can  be  char- 
acterized as  stable  and  variable.  Stern  finds 
a  difference  that  he  believes  to  be  fundamental 
and  a  basis  for  division  into  intellectual  types ; 
that  is,  a  difference  in  habit  of  individuals  that 
allows  them  to  be  classified  as  objective  and 
subjective.  This  difference  between  objective 
and  subjective  habit  he  finds  running  through 
habits  of  perception,  attention,  apperception, 
judgment,  and  even  in  simple  motor  reactions. 
He  concludes  that  this  is  the  very  center  of 
differences  in  mental  constitution. 

All  such  suggestions  for  classification  of  in- 
dividuals are  helpful  for  they  at  least  give  bints 
for  further  study.  Most  of  them  are  based 
upon  the  study  of  adults;  to  what  extent  they 
will  serve  also  in  the  study  of  children  is  not 
entirely  clear.  The  character  of  the  child  ap- 
pears in  less  sharp  outline,  and  to  a  certain 


EDUCATIONAL  ASPECTS  227 

extent  character  is  still  in  a  state  of  flux  in 
the  child,  or  as  it  can  perhaps  better  be  said, 
exists  in  fundamental  characteristics  and  has 
not  so  clearly  worked  itself  out  into  the  traits 
that  are  more  easily  observed. 

REFERENCES 
Ribot  Psychology  of  the  Emotions. 


Ill 

PEDAGOGICAL.  ASPECTS  OF   INDIVIDUALITY 

Many  practical  questions  arise  when  children 
are  considered  as  individuals  rather  than  as  a 
class.  However  strongly  entrenched  one  may 
be  in  the  group  theory  of  education,  in  actual 
practice  the  individual  demands  attention. 
There  is  always  the  abnormal  case  with  which 
educational  forces  must  deal,  and  every  good 
teacher  is  always  profoundly  conscious  of  the 
individual  and  his  special  needs;  and  is  aware 
that  the  information  dispensing  function  of  the 
school  reaches  but  a  part  of  the  individuality 
of  the  child,  the  one-tenth  it  can  be  said,  that 
appears  above  the  surface.  The  emotional  life 
which  contains  the  root  of  individuality  is  in  a 
large  measure  submerged.  Yet  the  comprehen- 
sion of  the  submerged  nine-tenths  on  the  part 
of  those  who  teach  and  control  the  child  seems 
vital  and  necessary. 


228  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

The  question  arises  as  to  what  extent  the 
school  as  such  can  be  expected  to  view  the  child 
as  an  individual,  and  to  what  extent  training 
in  the  study  of  individuals  should  form  a  part 
of  the  preliminary  education  of  the  teacher. 
The  problem  comes  sharply  to  view  in  consider- 
ing the  health  of  the  school  child.  What  ought 
to  be  expected  of  the  school  and  the  teacher  in 
the  way  of  knowledge  about  the  health  of  each 
individual  child,  and  in  efforts  to  correct  de- 
ficiency in  the  health?  How  much  knowledge 
of  physical  defects  should  be  expected  of  the 
teacher?  Should  the  school  provide  for  expert 
examination  of  the  physical  condition  of  each 
child? 

Again,  what  can  the  school  be  expected  to 
do  for  the  exceptional  child ;  the  child  who  never 
can  be  made  to  fit  into  the  routine  of  the  school ; 
not  only  the  subnormal  and  defective  child  but 
the  eccentric  and  exceptionally  gifted.  Must 
effort  constantly  be  made  to  bring  these  chil- 
dren up  or  down  to  the  average  of  the  group, 
or  must  they  be  regarded  as  different  in  kind 
from  other  children,  and  separately  taught?  If 
so,  from  what  source  is  the  information  to  come 
to  guide  in  the  practical  treatment  of  them? 

Can  the  school  take  into  account  early  in 
childhood  the  strong  interests  and  capacities 
of  children,  and  early  provide  differentiation 
of  training  to  meet  the  needs  of  different  types 
of  efficiency?    What,  again,  can  the  school  do 


EDUCATIONAL  ASPECTS  229 

about  those  deep-seated  differences  in  character 
and  temperament  that  are  so  little  touched  in 
the  ordinary  routine  life  of  the  school?  What 
provision  can  be  made  for  understanding  and 
assisting  the  child  whose  emotional  life  is  un- 
stable, and  for  warding  off  the  dangers  that 
confront  the  moral  delinquent,  the  timid,  and 
the  anti-social  child? 

Can  we  reasonably  expect  of  the  school  that 
it  be  so  informed  about  mental  differences  of 
children  as  to  enable  it  to  treat  the  child  as  an 
individual  with  reference  to  differences  in  men- 
tal type,  and  so  to  teach  him  along  lines  of 
least  resistance,  and  to  adopt  methods  of  teach- 
ing especially  suited  to  his  intellectual  type? 
What  can  be  done  for  the  child  whose  greatest 
limitation  is  the  poverty  of  cultural  elements 
in  his  home  environment? 

Whatever  shall  finally  be  the  decision  about 
these  matters  and  other  questions  that  arise 
when  the  needs  of  individuals  are  considered  the 
organizations  for  training  of  teachers  and  ad- 
ministration of  education  find  these  questions 
more  and  more  pressing  with  the  increasing 
complexity  of  social  life,  and  the  differentiation 
of  individuals.  The  condition  of  the  modern 
school  in  the  large  city  well  shows  the  difficulty 
that  confronts  education.  These  schools  con- 
tain individuals  of  many  nationalities  with 
ideals  and  occupational  tendencies  widely  differ- 
ing.   Compared,  for  example,  with  the  teacher 


230  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

in  a  small  country  communit}'  where  conditions 
are  more  uniform,  the  city  teacher  stands  in 
ignorance  about  the  personality  of  those  she 
teaches.  Either,  it  seems,  the  school  must  con- 
fine itself  more  and  more  to  the  training  of 
those  superficial  functions  that  individuals  have 
most  nearly  identical  with  one  another,  and 
which  can  be  understood  by  the  casual  ob- 
server of  the  individual,  or  the  school  must 
confess  that  it  works  more  and  more  in  the 
dark;  for  that  is  surely  the  case  if  it  pretends 
to  care  for  the  whole  child  —  unless  forces  are 
at  work  that  increase  the  knowledge  about  in- 
dividuals on  the  part  of  teachers,  or  relieve 
them  of  the  necessity  of  possessing  such  knowl- 
edge. 

The  deficiency  is  in  part  compensated  by  in- 
creased specialization  in  the  work  of  education 
and  care  of  the  young;  as  by  the  development 
of  the  department  teacher  and  provision  for 
more  subjects,  better  taught;  by  the  appear- 
ance in  the  school  system  of  the  medical  ex- 
pert, and  the  like;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
in  just  such  a  partition  of  the  person  and  the 
distribution  of  him  into  the  hands  of  specialists, 
that  the  individual  as  a  whole  is  lost  from  view. 
But  the  correction  does  not  lie  in  the  direction 
of  retrenchment  of  specialization,  but  in  accept- 
ing the  natural  result  of  social  development, 
and  making  the  study  of  individuals  itself  a 
specialty.     Already,  as  we  have  seen,  that  is 


EDUCATIONAL  ASPECTS  231 

what  is  beginning  to  happen.  The  methods  of 
studying  variability  in  several  sciences  now  be- 
gin to  unify  the  problem  of  individuality.  In 
the  practical  work  of  education  also  there  is  a 
beginning  of  specialization  of  interest  favor- 
able to  the  application  of  the  increasing  knowl- 
edge of  individuality  which  is  gathering  in 
scientific  quarters.  This  differentiation  is 
shown  in  several  ways ;  by  such  departments 
as  the  medical  office  of  the  school  system,  the 
department  of  physical  culture,  and  anthro- 
pometry, the  psychological  expert,  the  school 
visitor  whose  duty  it  is  to  investigate  the  con- 
dition of  the  school  child  at  home,  and  to  me- 
diate between  the  child  and  the  school ;  by  vari- 
ous societies  which  have  as  a  common  aim  to 
secure  the  welfare  of  children,  and  which  for 
the  better  pursuit  of  their  practical  purposes 
investigate  more  or  less  the  individuality  of 
the  person  whom  they  try  to  help.  All  these 
aid  in  the  centralization  of  forces  that  makes 
for  a  better  knowledge  of  individuals.  In  those 
favored  cases  in  which  teacher,  physician,  psy- 
chological specialist,  and  intelligent  parent  co- 
operate in  studying  the  interests  of  a  child 
almost  ideal  conditions  are  already  obtained. 
The  purpose  of  a  conscious  interest  in  the  prob- 
lems of  individuality  on  the  part  of  the  school 
would  be  to  make  these  conditions  more  gen- 
eral. 

Whether  in  the  near  future  there  will  be  de- 


232  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

velopment  and  centralization  of  the  scientific  as- 
pects of  the  study  of  individuality  such  as 
appears  to  be  gathering  on  the  practical  side 
remains  to  be  seen.  In  Germany  there  is  al- 
ready a  growing  institute  whose  function  is  the 
application  of  psychology  to  practical  problems, 
one  of  which,  and  in  fact  the  leading  problem, 
is  the  study  of  individuality.  Such  a  method 
of  approaching  the  problems  is  especially 
needed  in  the  study  of  individuality  because  of 
the  variety  of  special  interests  that  must  be 
combined  and  concentrated  upon  a  single  pur- 
pose. For  not  only  must  the  methods  of  study- 
ing individuals  be  derived  from  several  sci- 
ences, but  contact  must  be  made  in  a  helpful  way 
with  those  who  are  to  apply  this  knowledge  to 
the  particular  problems  of  the  individual;  this 
from  the  very  nature  of  the  case  is  different 
from  other  applications  of  science  to  practice, 
in  which  the  application  can  be  derived  from 
a  general  rule. 

What  is  needed  is  an  institution  in  which 
shall  be  concentrated  all  the  methods  applicable 
to  the  study  of  the  individual,  and  which  shall 
also  serve  as  a  central  point  for  the  dissemina- 
tion of  practical  knowledge,  the  training  of 
experts,  collection  of  literature,  and  even  work 
in  examination  of  individuals,  or  assistance  to 
those  who  are  practically  engaged  in  such  work. 
This  is  speaking  of  ideals;  yet  the  establish- 
ment of  such  an  ideal  method  of  procedure 


EDUCATIONAL  ASPECTS  233 

would  be  but  in  line  with  what  is  being  done  in 
other  departments  of  science  no  more  impor- 
tant ;  and  in  fact  not  different  from  what  is  be- 
ing done  elsewhere. 

^In  conclusion,  every  one  who  deals  practically 
with  individuals  should  be  fully  conscious  of 
what  being  an  individual  actually  means.  It 
means,  primarily,  to  be  conscious  of  power  of 
will  and  free  choice,  of  having  the  necessity  and 
the  privilege  of  carving  out  one's  own  fortune. 
But  it  means  also  isolation,  to  be  shut  up  within 
one's  own  experience,  to  have  perhaps  but  small 
insight  into  one's  own  nature  and  the  forces 
that  shape  it,  to  be  incapable  of  expressing  this 
individuality  fully  to  anyone;  to  be  therefore 
but  half  understood  even  by  the  most  conscien- 
tious helper.  This  inherent  loneliness  and  iso- 
lation of  individuality  may  be  to  the  individual 
its  most  real  meaning,  and  may  become  the 
cause  of  the  greatest  tragedies  of  human  life.} 

Not  only  therefore  is  the  problem  of  the  indi- 
vidual one  of  the  greatest  both  for  science  and 
for  the  practical  life  but  it  is  a  problem  that 
increases  in  importance  as  life  becomes  more 
complex  and  as  individuals  become  differenti- 
ated in  character  and  experience.  What  could 
be  more  unscientific  and  less  in  accord  with 
our  present-day  ideals  of  efficiency  in  all  pur- 
suits of  life  than  to  attempt  to  direct  and  con- 
trol our  fellows  with  but  the  most  casual  and 
superficial  knowledge  of  their  real  nature  as 


234  INDIVIDUAL  STUDY 

iudividuals;  of  that  which  is  not  expressed  in 
any  one  function  or  part,  and  which  therefore 
no  study  of  parts  and  functions  by  themselves 
will  disclose  —  the  individuality. 

And  yet  such  a  state  of  ignorance  is  prevalent 
to-day  not  only  among  teachers  but  in  all  the 
professions. 


THE   END 


INDEX 

A 

Abnormal  children,  221. 

Abnormalities,  69. 

Abnormalities   of  movement,   88. 

Accuracy  of  movement,  97. 

Acquired   coordination,   41. 

^■Esthetic  appreciation  of  body  characteristics,  72. 

.Esthetic  feeling,  123. 

Ambitions,    131. 

American  psychology,  32. 

Analogy,  192. 

Anatomical  diflFerences,  18. 

Anger,  116. 

Animal  cell,  variation  of,  38. 

Anthropological  methods,  23. 

Apparatus,  82. 

Association,  171. 

Association  time,  176. 

Attention,  141. 

Auditory  memory,   165 

Automatograph,  99. 

B 

Bertillon's  system,  65. 
Bihet,  iv,  220,  226. 
Biological  hypothesis,  37. 
Body  characteristics,  64. 
Brightness,  discrimination  for,  148. 


Case  method,  ii. 
Cause  and  effect,  192. 

235 


236  INDEX 

Chest  measurements,  77. 
Choice,  rapidity  of,  151. 
Clark's  experiment,  192. 
Collecting,  130. 
Color  discrimination,  148. 
Control  of  movement,  97. 
Coordination,  39. 
Curiosity,  139. 

D 

Descriptive  problem,  12. 
Diagnostic  problem,  14. 
Differentiation  of   individuals,  229. 
Double  pressure,  156. 
Drawing,  192. 
Dreams,  180. 
Dynamic  problem,  14. 

E 

Emotional  defects,   126. 

Emotional  life,   113. 

Emotional  tone,  117. 

Emotions,  method  of  studying,  114. 

English  psychology,  31. 

Estrangement  of  individuals,  9. 

Ethics  and  religion,  variational  methods  in,  21. 

Ethnology,  variational  method  in,  22. 

Experience,  135. 

Experimentation,  140. 

Eyes,  57,  67. 


P 


Face,  -66. 

Facial  expression,  90. 
Facial  movement,  88. 
Fatigue,  mental,  131. 
Fatigue  of  movement,  100. 
Fear,  114. 
Figure,  68. 
Fouill^e,  225. 


INDEX  237 


G 


Free  activity  of  mind,  178. 
French  psychology,  29. 


Gait,  90. 

Galton,  219. 

German  psychology,  27. 


Hand  balance  test,  86. 

Handclasp,  92. 

Hair,  66. 

Head,  65. 

Head  measurement,  77. 

Health,  examination  of,  52. 

Hearing,  59,  153. 

Height,  74. 

Heredity  record,  54. 


Imaginary  animal,  180. 

Individual-study,    11;    as   science,    11;    future   of,    35;    within 

psychology,  26;   problems  of,  11. 
Individuality,  factors  of,  8;  nature  of,  77. 
Intelligence,  186;  tests  of,  188. 
Institute  for  Individual  Study,  231. 
Interest,  characteristics  of,  103;  and  environment,  134. 
Interests  and  instincts,  128. 
Irritability,  39. 


Kellogg's  system,  79. 
Kirkpatrick's  vocabulary  test,  184. 
Kraepelin,  27. 


Language,  184,  196. 
Literary  interests,  132, 


238  INDEX 

M 

Manual  work,  90. 

Mathematical  methods,  51. 

Meaning  of  individuality,  233. 

Measurement  of  the  body,  73. 

Mechanism  of  mind,  163. 

Medical  diagnosis,  23. 

Medical  examination,  55. 

Memory,  163. 

Mental  traits,  103. 

Migration  interests,  131. 

Mill,  32. 

Moods,  117. 

Moral  life,  118. 

Movements,  experimental  study  of,  92. 

Movements,  observation  of,  85. 

Mutilated  text  experiment,  182. 

N 

Native  coordinations,  40. 
Need  of  individual   study,  9. 
Nervous  and  mental  condition,  56. 
Nervous  system,  39. 


Observation,  habits  of,  142. 
Observational  methods,  25. 
ffilirn,  27. 

Optimum  and  maximum  rate,  96. 
Outline  of  observation.  111. 


Pain,  159. 

Palmistry,  71. 

Pathological  variation,  19. 

PauUiam,  29. 

Pearson,  18. 

Pedagogical  aspects  of  individuality,  227. 

Pcrreption,  rapidity  of,  151. 


INDEX  239 


Perez,  225. 

Personal  history,  54. 

Phrenology,   31. 

Physician's  attitude,  48. 

Physiological  measurements,  82. 

Physiological  variation,  19. 

Pitch  discrimination,  154. 

Play,  128. 

Postures,  89. 

Practical  study  of  individuals,  47. 

Practical  problems,  16. 

Pressure  sense,  156. 

Primitive  man's  problems,  190. 

Proof,  189. 

Property  interests,  130. 

Psychological  methods,  24. 

Psychological  variation,  21. 

Purposive  thinking,  186. 

Puzzles,  191. 

R 

Rapidity  of  mental  processes,  131. 

Rapidity  of  movement,  95. 

Reasoning,   193. 

Record  of  medical   examination,  62. 

Recording  of  data,  50. 

Reflex  arc  concept,  42. 

Reflex  wink,  100. 

Religious  life,  121. 

Retention,  170. 

Rhythm,  155. 

Ribot,  30,  223. 

Rieger's  system,  81. 


School  interests,  132. 

Search,  method  of,  189. 

Seeland,  225. 

Senses,  146. 

Sex  interests,  129. 


240  INDEX 

Skin,  66. 

Smell,  161. 

Social  life,  125. 

Sociology,  variational  method  in,  22. 

Sound  discrimination,  153. 

Spearman,  33. 

Steadiness,  98. 

Stern,  28,  226. 

Story  writing,  183. 

Strength,  92. 

Suggestibility,  143. 


Tapping,  95. 
Taste,  160. 
Temperaments,  223. 
Temperature  sense,  158. 
Training  of  teachers,  ii. 
Twins,  201. 

Types  of  individuals,  221. 
Types  of  movement,  89. 


Variability,  3. 
Variational  method,  17. 
Vision,  109;  tests  of,  57. 
Visual   lengths,   150. 
Visual  memory,  164. 
Voice,  90. 


w 


Warner's  testa,  85. 
Weight,  75. 
Word  method,  104. 


v^ 


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